The challenges & responses of the 19th century

[Audio] The meaning and importance of a man's work can be best understood and appreciated when viewed within a time frame. To better understand and appreciate the role of Jose Rizal in the making of the Filipino nation one has to know the developments in the century in which he lived, the period he worked..

[Audio] The 19th century was an era of challenges and responses. It was a period of major changes which affected men and society. Important developments during the said century are as follows: growth and development of nationalism; rise and gradual spread of liberalism and democracy; industrial revolution; the upsurge of western imperialism; triumph of science and technology; and optimism and confidence in progress.

[Audio] Nationalism is a sense of loyalty or psychological attachment that members of a nation share, based on a common language, history, culture, and desire for independence. It is a feeling that drives a people together as a nation. It is love of country expressed in devotion to and advocacy of national interest and independence. When people become aware that they are different from another group, they become proud of their group. They become willing to serve this group, their nation. They become patriotic. They develop pride in their country. This is easily possible, however, only if they know their own country. This is the main reason why Rizal would encourage studies about the Philippines..

[Audio] The growth of nationalism can be attributed to two major revolutions of the earlier century: the American Revolution of 1776; and the French Revolution of 1789. Both revolutions gave birth to the idea that an individual's loyalty has to be to his nation not to the king. The American Revolution gave birth to the United States of America. On the other hand, the French Revolution led to the overthrowing of the absolute rule of the Bourbon Dynasty and the abolition of the feudal system. The ideology of the French Revolution — Liberty, Fraternity, and Equality — had influenced subject peoples to cast off the yoke of colonialism by means of armed uprising. Owing to their nationalistic spirit, Italy became a united kingdom under King Victor Emmanuel II after the Italians under Guiseppe Garibaldi drove out the Austrians occupying the northern part of the country and weakened the influence of the Pope. The separate kingdoms of Italy united as one nation. Ten years later, Germany through the vigorous campaign by the Prussians under Otto von Bismarck united the various kingdoms and dukedoms of the German nation and became one empire under Emperor William I. Rizal remembered the French revolution and wished Spain would have benefited from the gifts of said Revolution and shared them with the Philippines..

[Audio] Nationalism is one of the radical ideas in the years after 1815, which influenced the modern world tremendously. There are three points that stand out in this complex ideology (McKay et al, 1995): First, nationalism has evolved from a real or imagined cultural unity, manifesting itself in a common language, history, and territory. Second, nationalists have usually sought to turn this cultural unity into political reality so that the territory of each people coincides with its state boundaries. Third, Nationalists believed that every nation has the right to exist in freedom and develop its character and spirit..

[Audio] While nationalism can foster national unity, progress, and independence, it also has it negative side. The ideas of national superiority and national mission can lead to aggressive crusades and counter-crusades. Nationalism can also stress differences among peoples. The development of nationalism in the Philippines, however, was very slow. Loyalty to the nation began only after the unjust execution of Fathers Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora on February 17, 1872..

[Audio] The rise and spread of liberalism and democracy was actually a consequence of the growth and development of nationalism. The principal ideas of liberalism — liberty and equality — were first realized successfully in the American Revolution and then achieved in part in the French Revolution. This political and social philosophy challenged conservatism in the European continent. Liberalism demanded representative government as opposed to autocratic monarchy, equality before the law as opposed to legally separate classes. The idea of liberty also meant specific individual freedoms: freedom of the press; freedom of speech; freedom of assembly; and freedom from arbitrary arrest..

[Audio] Democracy became a way of life in many European countries, like Britain, Belgium, and Switzerland..

[Audio] Democracy was gradually established thru the following means: promulgation of laws that advance democracy; undertaking of reforms thru legislation; abolition of slavery; adoption of a liberal constitution; providing the citizens the opportunity to propose laws; adoption of manhood suffrage; and granting of political, economic and social rights to the people. Democracy was non-existent in the Philippines in the 19th century. The Philippines was denied representation in the Spanish Cortes since 1833. The ecclesiastical and civil authorities then were not inclined to grant basic human rights to the Filipinos, as it will be detrimental to Spain's colonial administration of the Philippines. They believed that if the Filipinos will enjoy basic rights and freedom, they would be motivated to work for independence and topple down the Regime..

[Audio] One of the most crucial developments in the 19th century was the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution refers to the transformation of manufacturing brought about by the invention and use of machines. This development started in England and later on spread into Belgium, France, Germany, and even the United States..

[Audio] The invention of machines and their use in manufacturing brought about significant changes in people's lives. Some of the positive effects brought about by this development include the following: The rise of the factory system; Mass production of essential and non-essential goods; Improvement of people's standard of living; Greater urbanization of society; Beginnings of specialization or division of labor; Invention of labor-saving devices; The beginnings of industrial capitalism; Fostering of liberalism and nationalism; and Encouragement of people's mobility..

[Audio] On the other hand, there were negative effects of the Industrial Revolution to people. Some of the evils associated with the Industrial Revolution are as follows: Widening of the gap between the rich and the poor; Unending economic warfare between labor and capital; Pollution and other environmental problems; Beginning of child and women labor; and Intensification of imperialistic rivalry between and among industrialized countries. In the Philippines, it caused the displacement of the farmers from their lands..

[Audio] To solve the evils created by the industrial system, different measures were proposed by concerned sectors of world society : For the liberals, laissez-faire policy or government's non-interference in the conduct of trade and business has to be sustained for the continuous expansion of the economy. The socialists assert that the government has to control vital industries and resources. This is necessary in promoting equality of opportunity and people's welfare in society. The communists, on the other hand, suggest that all factors of production be owned and controlled by the government. Equality in society can be achieved if social classes are destroyed and dictatorship of the proletariat is established. Conversely, the Catholic Church calls for humane treatment of workers, respect for workers' rights, and social justice for the poor. It also enjoined the government to regulate the use of private property and provide humane and favorable working conditions for the proletariat..

[Audio] The rapid expansion of scientific knowledge profoundly influenced Western thought in the 19th century. Breakthroughs in industrial technology enormously stimulated basic scientific inquiry. The result was an explosive growth of fundamental scientific discoveries from 1830s onward. These theoretical discoveries were increasingly transformed into material improvements for the population. The translation of better scientific knowledge into practical benefits was evident in biology, medical sciences, physics, and chemistry. The 19th century was time for the expansion of scientific knowledge. This means that search for knowledge and truth could be explained by a rational and empirical approach. This was the result of the Age of Enlightenment during the 18th century, when blind belief and dogma were challenged by the principle that everything could be explained by reason. This resulted in the development of the scientific method, where knowledge needs to be proven by a systematic and rational approach, which in effect, resulted in advances in the sciences..

[Audio] The triumph of science and technology had at least three significant consequences: First, everyday experience and innumerable scientists impressed the importance of science on the mind of ordinary citizens. Second, as science became more prominent in popular thinking, the philosophical implications of science spread to broad sections of the population. Technical advances led the people to develop optimistic faith in man's capability to achieve progress. Third, the methods of science acquired unrivaled prestige after 1850. For many, the union of careful experiment and theory was the only route to truth and objective reality. The effects of the scientific revolution spilled to the challenging of traditional beliefs in religion and politics. A belief emerged that the Church is not the sole source of knowledge but everyone can be capable of achieving knowledge and challenging the old established belief as long as this could be scientifically explained, replicated and validated. The scientific revolution gained headway in Western European countries like Germany, France, and England, which became centers of learning in the 19th century. Its universities and society became free market places of ideas, characterized by a large degree of intellectual freedom that is unhampered by religious dogma and superstition. German, French, and English scientists were at the forefront of this revolution and abroad, explorers, archeologists, and anthropologists scoured all parts of the world for new discoveries. Unfortunately, however, Spain was at the backwater of this scientific upheaval and this was felt by Rizal himself when he left the Philippines, feeling that his education in the colony was inadequate. He, eventually, left Spain for more advanced countries to improve his competencies as a physician..

[Audio] In the 19th century, the industrializing West entered the third and most dynamic phase of its centuries-old expansion into non-Western lands..

[Audio] In so doing, these Western nations profitably subordinated those lands to their economic interests, sent forth millions of immigrants, and established political influence in Asia and vast political empires in Africa. The reasons for this culminating surge were many, but the economic thrust of robust industrial capitalism, an ever-growing lead in technology, and the competitive pressures of European nationalism were particularly important. Western expansion had far-reaching consequences. For the first time in human history, the world became in many ways a single unit. Moreover, European expansion diffused the ideas and techniques of a highly developed civilization. Yet the West relied on force to conquer and rule, and treated non-Western peoples as racial inferiors. Thus, non-Western elites, armed with Western doctrines, gradually responded to Western challenge. They launched a national, anti-imperialist struggle for dignity, genuine independence, and modernization. Colonized peoples, therefore, started to assert their right to self-determination or the right to choose the kind of government under which they would live..

[Audio] Optimism or faith in society and man's ability to progress was brought about by the advancement of science, the coming of steam-powered industry, and the spread of liberalism and socialism. The optimism of the century was summed by Marquis de Condorcet in his work, Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind. He saw that "the strongest reasons for believing that nature has set no limit to the realization of our hopes" and foresaw "the abolition of inequality between nations, the progress of equality within nations, and the true perfection of humanity. Progress was now independent of any power that might wish to halt it and will never be reversed". Optimism and confidence in progress can be gleaned from the achievements of men in the 19th century. Notable among these were the following : Extension of human rights to many people; Promotion of higher education for men and women; Education for nationalism in schools; Investment in science to serve mankind; Improvement of public health thru the establishment of numerous hospitals; and Emergence of realistic literature, depicting the life of the time..