SPED 596

SPED 596. Week 5 (7/22-7/28).

[Audio] This week you will be reading about qualitative research, including an example of published research. You should also spend some time as a group working on your conceptual model..

[Audio] 8-1 Identify reasons for choosing qualitative methods. The Qualitative Revolution in Psychology Quantitative methods that reflected the postpositivist paradigm dominated the research scene in psychology. Psychology has followed suit by developing and incorporating qualitative methods that allow greater expression on the part of research participants and a more responsive relationship with them in the practice of research. Qualitative methods have become especially widespread in subfields involving professional practice, women's issues, and multicultural concerns. Research has hosted diverse, previously excluded stakeholders, and its knowledge has become more faithful to the experiences of persons and peoples. Key words associated with qualitative methods include complexity, contextual, exploration, discovery, and inductive logic. By using an inductive approach, researchers attempt to make sense of a situation without imposing preexisting expectations on the phenomena under study. For example, Indigenous youth were not traditionally involved in determining what is important to them in research studies..

[Audio] 8-1 Identify reasons for choosing qualitative methods. Basis for Selection of Qualitative Methods The Researcher's View of the World Constructivist View Denzin and Lincoln (2018b) note that many changes have occurred in the status of paradigms and choice of methods over the years, such that various paradigms are beginning to "interbreed." They note that their own work within the constructivist paradigm is influenced by facets of the transformative paradigm, such as action research, critical theory, participatory research, and feminist theory. Lincoln et al. (2011) identify qualitative methods as the preferred methods for researchers working in the constructivist paradigm; however, they also recognize that quantitative methods can be used within this paradigm when it is appropriate to do so. Controversy surrounds the issue of determination of cause-and-effect relationships between constructivists and postpositivists. Maxwell (2012) argues that qualitative methods allow us to understand the process and dynamics that support a causal relationship without the need for comparison or quantitative measurement. Qualitative methods also allow for inclusion of participants' differences in beliefs, values, intentions, and meanings as well as social, cultural, and physical contextual factors that affect causal relationships. Transformative Views People With Disabilities: Transformative researchers who work with communities of people with disabilities place high priority on developing relationships with members of the community, building trust, and recognizing the expertise that community members have. Qualitative research is useful because of the need to individualize education for students with disabilities—hence the need for research approaches that can capture the nature of those experiences. Qualitative approaches also allow for the study of accommodations needed for individual students that are specifically developed to address that student's learning needs and how they are supported. In special education, each student's program, by definition, is deliberately designed to be unique to satisfy that student's needs. This is reflected in the requirements of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), including an Individualized Education Program (IEP) for school-age students; an Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) for children; and an Individualized Transition Plan (ITP). Racial/Ethnic Minorities: Leong (2012), editor of the American Psychological Association's book series on culture, race, and ethnic psychology, notes that the "qualitative approach is especially important in the field of racial and ethnic minority psychology, given the complexity and intersectionality inherent in this subdiscipline." Feminists' Perspectives: Olesen (2018) traces the history of feminist research, describing the evolution of the feminist lens in research partly as a criticism of positivist approaches to research. Many feminist researchers developed qualitative approaches to research in order to make visible subjectivities, focus on issues of relevance to women, and support social change. Feminists turned to qualitative methods because they allowed for closer interactions with the participants; these were viewed as necessary to understand the lived experiences of women who had been marginalized in a misogynistic culture. Immigrant Groups: Dodson et al. (2007) address concerns regarding the conduct of qualitative research with recent immigrants, workers who are undocumented, and people who are wage-poor. Indigenous Populations: Scholarship by Indigenous people has taken a highly visible turn, whereby these scholars are demanding that research conducted in their communities be congruent with their beliefs, histories, and perceptions of appropriate ways to generate knowledge. Indigenous researchers are inclined to use qualitative approaches, perhaps not exclusively but certainly as an important part of the design. Practical Reasons (Pragmatism) Types of research questions for which qualitative methods would be appropriate: The focus of the research is on the process, implementation, or development of a program. The program emphasizes individualized outcomes. Detailed, in-depth information is needed about certain clients or programs. The focus is on diversity among, idiosyncrasies of, and unique qualities exhibited by individuals. The intent is to understand the program theory—that is, the staff members' (and participants') beliefs as to the nature of the problem they are addressing and how their actions will lead to desired outcomes. Patton (2002) describes a basis for choosing qualitative methods that is rooted in pragmatics associated with these methods, in addition to the nature of the research questions themselves. Qualitative methods might be appropriate in three conditions: First, because many educational and psychological programs are based on humanistic values, the intended users of the research may prefer the type of personal contact and data that emerge from a qualitative study. Second, qualitative methods may also be chosen when no acceptable, valid, reliable, appropriate quantitative measure is available for the desired outcomes of a program. A third reason for choosing qualitative methods might be to add depth to a quantitative study. The use of mixed methods can provide breadth, depth, and numerical data that can give a more complete picture of the phenomena under study..

[Audio] 8-2 Describe strategies for qualitative inquiry and their methodological implications, including ethnographic research, case studies, phenomenology, grounded theory, and participatory action research. Types of Qualitative Research 5 strategies of qualitative research. Ethnographic Research Ethnography: a form of research that is defined as long-term "physical and/or virtual observation. . . personally conducted in situ by the researcher and aimed at getting firsthand knowledge of the setting(s), the population(s), and the activities under study." Conducted over a period of time to reveal what happens during people's daily lives. A key assumption is that by entering into firsthand interaction with people in their everyday lives, ethnographers can reach a better understanding of the beliefs, motivations, and behaviors of the people on the study than they could by using other methods. Features and research strategies for ethnography: Ethnography involves collection and analysis of empirical data drawn from engaging with people in their daily lives over a long period of time, rather than being produced under experimental conditions created by the researcher. The research involves sustained engagement in a particular site or in several sites. A key aim is for the researcher to attempt to discover implicit, invisible, and sometimes contradictory norms, ideologies, and rules that shape people's lives. Data are gathered from a range of sources, but observation and/or relatively informal conversations are often key tools. Researchers need to be prepared to enter the field through reading relevant literature and developing preliminary research questions and hypotheses. Critical reflection on what the researcher is seeing, hearing, and feeling needs to be conducted on an ongoing basis. This may result in a change/refinement of research questions and/or hypothesis. The analysis of the data involves interpretation of the meanings and functions of human actions and mainly takes the form of verbal descriptions and explanations, with quantification and statistical analysis playing a subordinate role at most. Critical ethnography focuses on the researcher's ethical responsibility to "address processes of unfairness or injustice with a particular lived domain." Feminist ethnography is characterized by focusing on women's lives, activities, and experiences; use of feminist theories and ethics to inform methods and writing styles; and use of a feminist theoretical lens to analyze power differences related to gender. Performance ethnography (also known as ethnodrama) is yet another permutation of developments in the world of qualitative research that involves the development of a script and often a staged reenactment of ethnographically derived data. In photo-ethnography or visual ethnography, images are used as data sources. The images can come from pictures taken by the researchers or by participants..

[Audio] 8-2 Describe strategies for qualitative inquiry and their methodological implications, including ethnographic research, case studies, phenomenology, grounded theory, and participatory action research. Types of Qualitative Research Case Study An investigative approach used to thoroughly describe complex phenomena, such as persons, events, policies, important issues, or programs, in ways to unearth new and deeper understandings of these phenomena. Focuses on the concept of case and how people interact with components of these phenomena, A case is defined within particular boundaries and is studied in its natural context. A case may be based on any number of units of analysis: an individual, a group of individuals, a classroom, a school, or an event such as a shooting rampage or the birth of a child. To study a case, Stake (2005) recommends data collection of the following types of information: The nature of the case. Its historical background. The physical setting. Other contexts, such as economic, political, legal, and aesthetic. Other cases through which this case is recognized. Those informants through whom the case can be known. Yin (2018) recommends starting a case study by developing a research design. He identifies the following steps in the development of the case study design: Develop the research questions. Identify the propositions (if any) for the study. Specify the unit of analysis. Establish the logic linking the data to the propositions. The criteria for interpretation of the findings should be explained. In case study research, theory development is one essential part of the design phase. Yin (2018) defines theory as an understanding (or theory) of what is being studied. Case studies can be conducted as generic case studies, or they can be conducted as a specific type of case study such as an ethnographic case study or a phenomenological case study..

[Audio] 8-2 Describe strategies for qualitative inquiry and their methodological implications, including ethnographic research, case studies, phenomenology, grounded theory, and participatory action research. Types of Qualitative Research Phenomenological Research Husserl (1913/1982) introduced phenomenology as a way of studying the individual's perceptions and meaning of a phenomenon or experience. It calls upon the researcher to suspend theories, explanations, hypotheses, and conceptualizations to be able to understand the phenomena as they are lived, not as they are defined by an external source. The intent is to understand and describe an event from the point of view of the participant. Researchers using the phenomenological approach in special education could study what the experience of being in a total-inclusion classroom is like or what the experience of being a student with a disability (or one without a disability) in an integrated classroom is like. The key characteristic of phenomenology is the study of the way in which members of a group or community themselves interpret the world and life around them. Phenomenology is the philosophical base for interpretive research strategies, such as ethnomethodology and conversational analysis, which have at their core the qualitative study of reality-constituting practices. Feminists have used ethnomethodological strategies to highlight the oppressing effect of language use in describing women's experiences..

[Audio] 8-2 Describe strategies for qualitative inquiry and their methodological implications, including ethnographic research, case studies, phenomenology, grounded theory, and participatory action research. Types of Qualitative Research Grounded Theory Grounded theory has a dual identity as both a method of inquiry and a product of inquiry. Grounded theory, developed by Glaser and Strauss (1965) and modified by Corbin and Strauss (2008), is an approach in which data are simultaneously collected and analyzed in search of emergent themes that guide future data collection and which culminates in the development of a theory grounded in the analyzed data. The defining characteristic of grounded theory is that the theoretical propositions are not stated at the outset of the study. Generalizations (theory) emerge out of the data themselves and not prior to data collection. Because the initial or emerging theory is always tested against data that are systematically collected, this approach to research has been called the constant comparative method. It was created explicitly for the purpose of developing theory based on empirical data. The key methodological features include the following: The researcher needs to constantly interact with the data; ask questions designed to generate theory and relate concepts. Use theoretical sampling—that is, select incidents for data collection that are guided by the emerging theory; as you ask questions of your data, you will begin collecting data that will help you fill in gaps in your theoretical formulation. Use theoretical, systematic coding procedures and conceptualize how the substantive codes relate to each other as hypotheses to be integrated into a theory. Ask questions of your data that allow you to depict the complexity, variation, and nature of the relationships between variables in your study. Charmaz (2014) suggests that researchers using the grounded theory approach need to be aware that rigid adherence to these steps may create a false sense of confidence in the results..

[Audio] 8-2 Describe strategies for qualitative inquiry and their methodological implications, including ethnographic research, case studies, phenomenology, grounded theory, and participatory action research. Types of Qualitative Research Participatory Action Research Tarozzi (2022) describes participatory action research as: "systematic procedures, used by practitioners with or without professional researchers, to collect data addressing improvements and promoting change in their educational [or psychological] settings." Two approaches to participatory research differ in their fundamental assumptions of the role of the researchers and the influence of power on the researcher–participant relationships: cooperative participatory action research and transformative participatory action research. Cooperative Participatory Action Research Cooperative inquiry involves participation of all people in the research process but does not explicitly address power relations and the potential transformative effects of the research. Cooperative inquiry is based on the importance of self-determination, and thus all people are involved in the research as coresearchers. They contribute to the decision-making through generating ideas, designing and managing the project, and drawing conclusions from the experience, and also as co-subjects, participating in the activity being researched. The following steps are commonly used to describe the process of conducting action research: Step 1. Diagnosing: Identify a practical and pertinent problem and reflect on possible solutions. Step 2. Reconnaissance and planning: Develop possible solutions. Step 3. Action: Implement the chosen solutions and collect data on its effectiveness. Step 4. Reflection: Reflect on outcomes, decide what needs to be changed or improved, and revise or modify it for the next action step. Step 5. Repeat as necessary: Continue the cycle to develop, implement, and evaluate solutions for practice improvement. Transformative Participatory Action Research Transformative participatory action research (PAR) also involves members of the community in the research process in varying roles but does so with explicit recognition of power issues and a goal of transforming society. Transformative PAR is associated with inquiries that are based on social transformation, often in developing countries. Transformative PAR emphasizes the role of the researcher as a change agent who establishes conditions for liberating dialogue with impoverished or oppressed groups and the political production of knowledge. The focus is on the people's participation in setting the agenda, participating in the data collection and analysis, and controlling use of the results. Research might take the form of community meetings and events that allow the oppressed people to tell their own stories, to reflect on their communities, and to generate ideas for change. Photovoice is often used in transformative and Indigenous PAR, where individuals are given cameras to document the needs of their communities..

[Audio] 8-2 Describe strategies for qualitative inquiry and their methodological implications, including ethnographic research, case studies, phenomenology, grounded theory, and participatory action research. Data Collection Qualitative researchers use three main methods for collecting data: observations, interviews, and document and records review. Interviews can be done with individuals or with groups..

[Audio] 8-2 Describe strategies for qualitative inquiry and their methodological implications, including ethnographic research, case studies, phenomenology, grounded theory, and participatory action research. Data Collection Personal Interviews Personal interviews are often associated with qualitative research. Preparing for the Interview Hold an introductory meeting to share the purpose of the study, discuss confidentiality issues, and get assurance that the person does want to participate. Then, schedule the interview at the respondent's convenience. Learn the local language. Make an interview schedule as best you can at the beginning of the study. Make an interview guide. Don't structure the interview guide around yes-or-no questions. Definitely pretest your interview procedures. Plan to conclude with open-ended questions If you are training interviewers, do the following First, have the interviewers study the interview guide and learn about the interviewing conditions and logistics. Second, have the interviewers practice interviews and receive feedback until performance reaches a desired level. Starting and Conducting the Interview Start by establishing rapport: Briefly review the purpose of the interview, your credentials, and the information needed. Provide assurances of confidentiality. Focus your attention on what the person is saying. Sequence the questions from general to specific. When asking for criticisms of a program, be sure to use a constructive framework to structure the questions Put answers in perspective: Ask for specific examples. Ask what opinions others might hold A variety of different kinds of questions can be asked in interviews. Concluding the Interview Ease into the conclusion by summarizing what you have just heard. Explain what you plan to do with the data. Thank the person for participating. Probe gently ("Did I miss anything?"). Follow up with a phone call or letter thanking the person again and clarifying any confusion..

[Audio] 8-2 Describe strategies for qualitative inquiry and their methodological implications, including ethnographic research, case studies, phenomenology, grounded theory, and participatory action research. Data Collection Transformative Perspectives on Interviewing Feminists have explored a wide range of methodological issues related to interviewing as a data collection method in research. Feminists raise the following issues related to interviewing: Desirability of repeat interviews with the same respondent. Number, sequencing, and type (closed, open, or both) of questions. Ability of the interviewee to question the interviewer. Standardization of the process or questions. The location of the interview The method of recording the data. Conducting the interview yourself or using trained interviewers. Doing face-to-face or phone interviews. Determining who will be present during the interview. Doing interviews individually or in a group. Whether or not the interviewer and interviewee know each other in advance. Having the interviewee read the interview transcript and interpretation and modify the data and interpretations in the study. Who Can Interview Whom? Researchers struggle with the tensions created by the need to have interviewers who understand the cultural experiences of their respondents and potentially contributing to further marginalization associated with taking a position that only members of a group can interview each other. This is sometimes seen as an insider–outsider issue. Should the Interviewer and Interviewee Be Friends or Strangers? Researchers have also concerned themselves with the issue of the status of interviewer as friend or stranger. If the interviewer and interviewee are friends prior to the interview, the interviewee may feel greater rapport and be more willing to disclose information. For many participants taking part in research on sensitive topics, it is the first time that they have told someone their story, and this can raise difficulties not only for them but also for the researcher who is listening to the story. Fowler (2014) recommends a role as a standardized interviewer because he values trying to "neutralize" the effect of the interviewer so that differences in answers can be attributed to differences in the respondents themselves. Reciprocity The issue of reciprocity is related to the role of the researcher in terms of feeling that they want to give something back to the participant during the interview process. Feminists have written about ways to structure interviews to try to raise the consciousness of the interviewee who is experiencing abuse or some other form of trauma. Interviewers need to be sensitive to possibly biasing the interviewee by the information that they choose to disclose about themselves. Confirmation Bias Confirmation bias is the tendency to privilege preexisting beliefs and to use those beliefs as filter for interpreting new information that we encounter. Human beings naturally seek information that confirms our beliefs and filter out contradicting information. Researchers need to be aware of this tendency and to be open to viewpoints with which they disagree or have not had personal experience..

[Audio] 8-3 Summarize the general methodological guidelines for qualitative research. General Methodological Guidelines Because there is no one correct method for conducting qualitative research, qualitative researchers need to describe their methodology in detail so the reader can make a judgment about the quality of the methods used..

[Audio] 8-3 Summarize the general methodological guidelines for qualitative research. General Methodological Guidelines The Researcher Is the Instrument The qualitative researcher decides which questions to ask and in what order, what to observe, and what to write down. In general, qualitative research texts recognize the importance of researchers reflecting on their own values, assumptions, beliefs, and biases and monitoring those as they progress through the study to determine their impact on the study's data and interpretations. Researchers can use autoethnography as a strategy for tracking their own involvement in their study. In transformative research in particular, the issue has been raised as to the ability of men to study women, members of a dominant ethnic group to study minority ethnic groups, or people without disabilities to study persons with disabilities. Some researchers choose to do volunteer work in the community to build rapport and increase their understandings before they conduct their research..

[Audio] 8-3 Summarize the general methodological guidelines for qualitative research. General Methodological Guidelines Speaking for the Other Going beyond the question of whether or not a member of a dominant group can legitimately study the experiences of an oppressed group lays the ethical issue of who can speak for another. M. Fine et al. (2000) warn that researchers can unwittingly or deliberately contribute to the continuation of oppression by presuming to speak for the groups in our research. Through collaborative construction of text, researchers can enable resistance to continued oppression..

[Audio] 8-3 Summarize the general methodological guidelines for qualitative research. General Methodological Guidelines Focus on an Area of Inquiry The area of inquiry, as defined by the initial literature review and the research questions, should be viewed as tentative and evolving. The researcher must be open to a change of focus if that is dictated by the data emerging from the field experience..

[Audio] 8-3 Summarize the general methodological guidelines for qualitative research. General Methodological Guidelines Explore Research Sites and Sampling Issues People can use information gathered from preliminary visits to potential research sites to convince a funding agency or a research committee that they are capable of conducting a qualitative study and to determine the site's accessibility and suitability. During visits, one can conduct pilot work (with permission of the gatekeepers at the site) that will allow them to suggest possible activities, locations, and people (possibly defined in terms of positions within the organization) that they want to include in the study. The researcher should be aware that data provided by participants may vary based on the place, activity engaged in, or social variables at the time of the data collection. The researcher should provide a description of the setting, the research site, and the conditions operating at the time the data were gathered and report exactly how the participants were selected along with their characteristics..

[Audio] 8-3 Summarize the general methodological guidelines for qualitative research. General Methodological Guidelines Gaining Permission Before data are collected, the researcher must follow appropriate procedures to gain permission from the gatekeepers of the organization or community. In organizational settings, such as schools, clinics, or community agencies, formal procedures are established that define how permission is to be obtained. The notion of entry into a setting by means of access granted by gatekeepers is problematic for researchers who work from a transformative perspective..

[Audio] 8-3 Summarize the general methodological guidelines for qualitative research. General Methodological Guidelines Negotiating Entry Lyons et al. (2012) provide practical advice for negotiating entry into sites for research, including that researchers visit a number of sites and negotiate with gatekeepers to determine if the proposed project would be welcomed and if researchers would be able to access the site. Populations that have experienced negative effects of research can have a healthy suspicion of a researcher's motives. Gatekeepers might be wary of research that is aimed at evaluating their personnel or institution or that might reflect badly on their organization. The researcher can provide some assurances about the amount of control the gatekeepers will have over the research process and the use of the findings..

[Audio] 8-3 Summarize the general methodological guidelines for qualitative research. General Methodological Guidelines Entering the Field The researcher needs to make plans to enter the field in the least disruptive manner possible, taking care to establish good rapport with the participants. Lyons et al. (2012) discuss entry into communities and the need to be aware of the cultural makeup of the community and the cultural positioning of the researcher. Sharing a salient characteristic (such as skin color) may be sufficient to begin a conversation, but it is not enough to ensure that the researcher will be viewed as trustworthy. Researchers who work internationally will find that these characteristics are more or less important, depending on the country in which they are conducting their studies. The researcher should be sensitive to what these norms are and how they might affect the research work..

[Audio] 8-3 Summarize the general methodological guidelines for qualitative research. General Methodological Guidelines Role of the Researcher In M. L. Anderson's (1993) examination of the role of the researcher within the context of being a white woman studying the experiences of Black women, she suggests that white researchers doing research on race and ethnicity "should examine self-consciously the influence of institutional racism and the way it shapes the formulation and development of their research, rather than assume a color-blind stance." She rejects the "unbiased, objective" scientific research stance in favor of one that recognizes the influences of the researcher's own status (e.g., race, gender) on the shaping of knowledge. This requires that researchers build more inclusive ways to discover the multiple views of their participants and adopt more personally interactive roles with them. Researchers should develop approaches that are child friendly and encourage children to have their say in all matters related to the research. A challenge for many researchers is allowing children to define the focus of the study, determine the research questions, and advise on data collection strategies. Time is needed to build respectful relationships and provide training for the children so they are prepared to fulfill their roles as coresearchers..

[Audio] 8-3 Summarize the general methodological guidelines for qualitative research. General Methodological Guidelines Gender Issues Feminist researchers focus on discrimination based on gender; feminist intersectional researchers focus on multiple dimensions of diversity that are used as a basis of discrimination, such as gender, race, religion, sexuality, and age. Harries (2022) reflected on how she experienced sexual harassment in her fieldwork while exploring questions of policies related to race and ethnicity with civil servants, community activists, community volunteers, and public sector professionals. Research training needs to make explicit the effect of hierarchies and inequalities on the basis of gender (and race/ethnicity) so that data collection is a safe and productive encounter, free of harassment..

[Audio] 8-2 Describe strategies for qualitative inquiry and their methodological implications, including ethnographic research, case studies, phenomenology, grounded theory, and participatory action research. Translation Issues in Multilingual Contexts Researchers are becoming more aware of the diversity within populations that they study and that this extends to the language that different people in a specific area use competently. Resch and Enzenhofer (2018) recommend that researchers conduct a careful analysis of languages that are used in their research contexts and challenge the assumption that the dominant language is appropriate for all participants. They recommend that multilingual teams be developed that include individuals skilled not just in local languages, but also in the cultural nuances. Strategies that increase the likelihood that multilingual data will be accurately collected include conducting interviews by individuals skilled in language and culture in the participant's preferred language and transcribing them verbatim..

[Audio] 8-2 Describe strategies for qualitative inquiry and their methodological implications, including ethnographic research, case studies, phenomenology, grounded theory, and participatory action research. Qualitative Data Collection Methods Many other types of data collection methods can be used in qualitative studies..

[Audio] 8-4 Examine sample qualitative research studies using criteria for critically analyzing qualitative research. Critically Analyzing Qualitative Research Quality indicators for qualitative research are dependent on the approach and purpose of the study. Standards for evidence and quality in qualitative inquiries requires careful documentation of how the research was conducted and the associated data analysis and interpretation processes as well as the thinking processes of the researcher. Freeman et al. (2007) discussed the issue of validity (sometimes called credibility) in qualitative research as a process of using "data as evidence to warrant claims within different theoretical frameworks and specific communities of practice." Criteria for judging the quality of qualitative research that parallel the criteria for judging positivist, quantitative research have been outlined by a number of writers. Lincoln (2009) envisioned a different set of criteria for judging the quality of research from what is currently used in most academic settings. Morse (2022) makes the point that not all criteria for judging quality of qualitative research are equally applicable; the researcher needs to make nuanced judgments based on the approach used in the qualitative study. Guba and Lincoln (1989) equate credibility with internal validity, transferability with external validity, dependability with reliability, and confirmability with objectivity..

[Audio] 8-4 Examine sample qualitative research studies using criteria for critically analyzing qualitative research. Critically Analyzing Qualitative Research Credibility Prolonged and Persistent Engagement: Lincoln (2009) proposed criteria for quality in qualitative research that include the deep and close involvement of researchers in the community of interest combined with sufficient distance from the phenomenon under study to record accurately observed actions. Claims should be made based on sufficient data to support them, and processes of analysis and interpretation should be made visible. Implications that derive from these criteria include spending sufficient time in the field to be able to avoid premature closure. Member Checks and Peer Debriefing: In addition, checking with stakeholders (participants) in the research (member checks) and working with other researchers (peer debriefers) are recommended practices. Member checks can be formal and informal. Member checks and peer debriefing entail some careful thought on the part of the researchers, who need to consider who to check with and how and when to do it. Researchers should establish criteria for whom they will include in member checks and peer debriefings and give a rationale for why they choose those individuals. When using peer debriefing, the researcher should engage in an extended discussion with a peer of findings, conclusions, analysis, and hypotheses. The peer should pose searching questions to help the researcher confront their own values and to guide next steps in the study. Negative Case Analysis: Working hypotheses can be revised based on the discovery of cases that do not fit. However, it should not be expected that all cases will fit the appropriate categories. Guba and Lincoln (1989) state that when a "reasonable" number of cases fit, negative case analysis provides confidence in the hypothesis that is being proposed. The researcher could seek additional data for negative case analysis from a school that used a bottom-up approach to total inclusion. Progressive Subjectivity: Because researchers are the instruments in qualitative research, they need to monitor their own developing constructions and document the process of change from the beginning of the study until it ends. Researchers can share this statement of beliefs with the peer debriefer so that the peer can challenge the researcher who either does not keep an open mind or is unaware of their own biases, including confirmation bias. This concept is extended in the transformative criteria of critical reflexivity and positionality. Triangulation: Triangulation involves checking information that has been collected from different sources or methods for consistency of evidence across sources of data. Guba and Lincoln (1989) do not support triangulation as a method to establish consistency from multiple sources because it implies that it is possible (or desirable) to find consistency across sources, which contradicts the notion of multiple realities discussed earlier in this chapter. The researcher should be sure to explore rival explanations and to determine the convergence (or nonconvergence) of data from multiple sources in terms of supporting causal inferences..

[Audio] 8-4 Examine sample qualitative research studies using criteria for critically analyzing qualitative research. Critically Analyzing Qualitative Research Transferability: Thick Description and Multiple Cases Guba and Lincoln (1989) identify transferability as the qualitative parallel to external validity in postpositivist research. In the postpositivist paradigm, external validity enables generalization of findings based on the assumption that the sample used in the study is representative of the population. The term transferability is the parallel concept that enables readers of the research to make judgments based on similarities and differences when comparing the research situation to their own. Extensive and careful description of the time, place, context, and culture is known as thick description. The term was coined by Geertz (1973) to capture the need for qualitative researchers to provide sufficient details about the context so that readers would be able to understand the complexity of the research setting and participants. Yin (2018) suggests that use of multiple cases can strengthen the external validity of the results..

[Audio] 8-4 Examine sample qualitative research studies using criteria for critically analyzing qualitative research. Critically Analyzing Qualitative Research Dependability Guba and Lincoln (1989) identified dependability as the qualitative parallel to reliability. Reliability means stability over time in the postpositivist paradigm. In the constructivist paradigm, change is expected, but it should be tracked and publicly inspectable. Yin (2018) describes this process in case study research as maintaining a case study protocol that details each step in the research process..

[Audio] 8-4 Examine sample qualitative research studies using criteria for critically analyzing qualitative research. Critically Analyzing Qualitative Research Confirmability Guba and Lincoln (1989) identified confirmability as the qualitative parallel to objectivity. Objectivity means that the influence of the researcher's judgment is minimized. Confirmability means that the data and their interpretation are not figments of the researcher's imagination. Guba and Lincoln recommend a confirmability audit to attest to the fact that the data can be traced to original sources and that the process of synthesizing data to reach conclusions can be confirmed. Yin (2018) refers to this as providing a "chain of evidence." The confirmability audit can be conducted in conjunction with the dependability audit..

[Audio] 8-4 Examine sample qualitative research studies using criteria for critically analyzing qualitative research. Critically Analyzing Qualitative Research Transformative Criteria Transformative criteria for quality in qualitative research are situated in concerns for social justice and human rights. Scholars in the field describe several sets of criteria that are commensurate with this position. Evaluations that are informed by a transformative lens can take many forms; there is no rigid set of criteria that define this approach. Key characteristics include the following: Begins with an ethical stance that is inclusive and culturally responsive, consciously addresses inequities, provides for reciprocity, recognizes community resilience and strengths, and focuses on supporting transformative change in the form of increased social, economic, and environmental justice. Supports the development of collaborations and coalitions that are informed by the principles of social activism as a way to generate ownership and sustainability. Does not make assumptions about what the problems and solutions are before consultation with the full range of stakeholders. Makes visible versions of reality that support an oppressive status quo and reveals versions of reality that can lead to increased justice. Commits to recognizing heterogeneity and intersectionality within communities based on relevant dimensions of diversity that are used as a basis of discrimination. Incorporates culturally responsive, equity-focused, anti-racist, feminist, and Indigenous approaches as appropriate to context. Uses a participatory and reflective entry process into a community that is designed to build trust, address power differences, and give value to grassroots knowledge. Employs strategies throughout the evaluation that build capacity of the stakeholders to use the findings for transformative purposes and disseminates findings to support increased social, economic, and environmental justice. Has an action orientation; the structure, process, and findings of the evaluation are designed to support transformative change. Does not over-promise to stakeholders that transformative changes will occur as a result of their participation in the evaluation, but commits to structuring the evaluation in ways that increase the probability of such change..

[Audio] 8-4 Examine sample qualitative research studies using criteria for critically analyzing qualitative research. Questions for Critically Analyzing Qualitative Research Questions to consider: Did the researcher maintain sufficient involvement at the site to overcome distortions, uncover people's constructions, and understand the context's culture and thus avoid premature closure? Did the researcher use peer debriefing and member checks? Did the researcher prepare a statement of beliefs and share those with the peer debriefer? Did the researcher use negative case analysis? Did the researcher use triangulation? Did the researcher provide sufficient thick description? Did the researcher do a dependability audit? Did the researcher do a confirmability audit? Did the researcher display conflicts and value differences? Did the individuals and groups become more informed or sophisticated about their experiences? Did the researcher establish links with the community that indicated that a level of trust had been established? Did the researcher seek out those who are silent and marginalized? Was the researcher critically reflexive? Were arrangements made to give back to the community and to share the perquisites of privilege? Did the evaluation stimulate action? How did the research process and outcomes enhance social justice and human rights?.

Conceptual Models/Frameworks.

[Audio] So far you have worked on steps 1 and 2 of the research/scientific process. You have identified a socially important issue or topic and have looked into some of the current research on the issue or topic. Over weeks 5 and 6 of the course groups will define a conceptual model that would inform any research on the chosen topic or issue..

[Audio] Conceptual models, also know as conceptual frameworks serve important roles in the planning and execution of research. First, conceptual models/frameworks drive the research. The do so by guiding our thinking and providing "rules", "principles" that direct our decision making. Second, conceptual models/frameworks coherently structures the assumptions, principles, and rules that holds together the ideas of a broad concept. For example, a principle that pervades both the fields of applied behavior analysis and early intervention/early childhood special education is that of prevention. Many research and practice efforts in both fields focus on how to prevent individuals from developing behaviors that will result in exclusion from their peers. Finally, conceptual models/frameworks outline your research. Extending the previous example, if prevention is a critical principle of your conceptual framework an expectation would be that a research project would either focus on prevention or describe prior intervention efforts, including the extent to which the efforts were successful..

[Audio] Example "Logical Flaws" of FBA use in public schools (Scott et al., 2005). FBA is used mainly as a reactionary approach. opportunity is lost to utilize FBA technology to develop interventions that address minor behaviors that usually precede more serious problems. FBA is restricted to set of procedures used by "experts" The rich supply of information from people with whom the student interacts with the most is lost. FBA is restricted to rigorous procedures that are unrealistic for public school settings. Disincentive for using FBA technology. Cynicism as to the practicality of FBA ..

[Audio] Proactive…Parsimonious…Practical FBA in schools FBA conceptualized by Scott et al. as a proactive pre-referral routine that uses the most parsimonious procedures required to create an effective behavior support plan. Given the time & resource constraints in schools, we must encourage schools to "work smarter" to develop capacity to implement technology to effectively support more students. Use Practical FBA procedures to develop capacity within a school to utilize FBA technology..

[Audio] Practical FBA Conceptual Framework Within a tiered support or pyramid model, personnel are trained and supported to help students based upon their level of support need. Rather than having behavior specialists be charged with all functional behavioral assessment tasks, schools may train personnel with flexible roles to conduct practice functional behavioral assessments, leaving the most complex cases for the behavior specialist. By increasing differentiating functional behavioral assessments based upon the complexity of the process and by increasing the pool of personnel that can complete the less complex assessments, a school can increase the practicality of using functional behavioral assessments within public schools..

[Audio] Conceptual Framework for Practical FBA in schools Use a proactive process with simple and quick procedures required to create an effective behavior support plan. Train school-based professionals (e.g., counselors, teachers, administrators) to conduct simple/basic FBA for students with moderate behavioral problems to limit the load on specialists- resulting in better plans and better use of FBA Use Practical FBA procedures to develop capacity within a school to utilize FBA technology..

[Audio] Group Work If you have not done so already share your annotated bibliographies with each group member (Google Drive might be a nice way to do this) Refine your topic or issue If selected literature focused on a specific practice, then consider refining the name of your topic or issue to include that practice Begin to identify the commonalities in how your group's identified issue or topic was discussed in the selected literature from the annotated bibliography For example, is prevention a focus of the literature? What assumptions are made about the research (e.g., that family support is preferred over supporting individuals alone). You may refine an existing conceptual framework, just cite it appropriately (e.g., adapted from Scott et al., 2005)..