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SOCL 3008 Researching Social Life Lecture 10 : Quantitative research

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= formal, objective, systematic process of collecting information about the world which can be expressed numerically.

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Objectivist ontology : external social world; its features and our behaviour can be broken down in to component parts, isolated, measured and their effects identified Positivist epistemology : observation as source of knowledge Deductive  - theory testing:  most often of the middle-range = understand and explain a limited aspect of social life. NB: cumulative nature of theory testing.

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To establish  social facts : the existence of broad patterns, trends, frequencies in society, particularly of characteristics, attitudes and action. To establish general  causal  relationships and explanations.

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Process-oriented-  effected through a linear research path, this means ... Fixed  research design and implementation process Reconstructed logic: following of  formalistic, set rules  by the expert, objective researcher Engages with a  topic  in terms of discrete variables and testable hypotheses/quantitative research questions Variable  = concept that can take on multiple values / attributes Hypothesis  = statement about a proposed relationship between two or more variables Yields  numeric data : the analysis of which serves to confirm/refute hypotheses or answer quantitative research questions

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Experiments Surveys (questionnaire or structured interview) Content analysis In the Social Sciences, researchers most often employ the  SURVEY METHOD .

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Clarification of the topic, purpose, question/hypothesis Specification of the rationale Review of the literature and theory Conceptualisation and operationalisation Choice of methodological approach Choice of methods and research instruments Choice of sampling methods Consideration of ethical and professional practice Data collection Data management and analysis Consideration of validity and reliability of the study Report writing and reporting the findings

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Clarification of the topic, purpose, question/hypothesis

Topic  = broad area of sociological interest Purpose  = exploratory, descriptive, explanatory, change Research question  = must have a ‘?’. Most often, either a  descriptive  question (to investigate patterns, trends, frequencies, facts) or  explanatory  question (to investigate causal relationships between factors, variables). Hypothesis  = statement of the relationship between two or more variables to be tested in the research Note that when doing a quantitative project / approach / design, this question/hypothesis must require numeric data to be answered and thus lends itself toward a quantitative approach.

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For example: DESCRIPTIVE – WHAT is happening?

These questions are asked to either –   Describe the variables that are being measured, in one or more groups, or Compare two or more groups on one or more variables  What is the  extent  of poverty in Eldorado Park? How  often  do South African students use Facebook each week? What  proportion  of registered current medical doctors in Gauteng have completed additional training courses in the treatment of HIV/AIDS?

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What are the most important factors that influence the degree choice of Humanities students at Wits? What are the attitudes of agricultural workers towards health and safety in the workplace?  How do the views of the use of steroids in school rugby compare between male and female teachers?   What are the differences in perceptions of Internet banking security between adolescents and pensioners?

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For example: RELATIONSHIP-BASED / EXPLANATORY QUESTIONS - WHY is it happening?

These questions are asked to investigate  associations, trends, interactions  between variables; and  nomothetic causal explanations  = belief that all things being equal, variation in independent variable (cause) produces variation in dependent variable (effect). Nomothetic causal explanation  e.g.  Individuals arrested for domestic assault  tend to  commit fewer subsequent assaults  than do similar individuals who are accused in the same circumstances but not arrested.

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Variable = something you are trying to measure. Independent variable = a variable whose change isn’t affected by the dependent variable. Dependent variable = what is being studied and measured in the research.  Variation in independent variable (cause) produces variation in dependent variable (effect).

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Hence, questions are often, but not only, formulated in  relationship  terms:  What is the relationship between gender/race/class and attitudes towards the public health system?  What is the relationship between educational level and views on marriage amongst single women? What is the effect of employment status and area of residence on attitudes towards local government service delivery? How is level of religiosity related to involvement in gambling activities? How is lecture attendance related to final course grades in the Humanities disciplines?

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= Why is this an important, interesting, worthwhile project to do? What is the social issue? Why is it a social issue? What is the social context? Historically, contemporary? What is sociological about this issue? What is the intellectual or theoretical or empirical puzzle about this research? What theoretical or other contribution can the research make to the existing body of knowledge? What are the practical implications for this research?  How can it potentially benefit people, practitioners etc. Who and why?

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= Research is located in an already existing body of knowledge about the social world. Where this research fits in must be identified and explained.

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Conceptualisation : what are you going to be studying? What are your variables. How are you going to define it/them? Provide definition/s. Specify the values/attributes of the variables. Operationalisation : How are you going to measure each of the variables? What will be the indicators of these variables?

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The question/hypothesis you want to investigate, and the data that is required to address this question/hypothesis, determines the approach.  Define quantitative, see above. Outline its key features, see above.   Justify why this study is quantitative by reference to the research question, C and O and the data that is needed.

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Choice of methods and research instruments

Researchers must decide on a  method /s = means by which data is gathered.  They must be clear on the definition of these method/s, and how and why it/they will be used for the research project. Note that all methods have particular strengths, and part of the justification for a method is linked to the advantages/strengths of the method.  For social scientists doing quantitative research the survey is the most commonly used method.

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Almost all surveys have the following defining characteristics – Allow for the collection of data from a relatively large number of people. Allow for the collection of specific data which can be aggregated to identify frequencies, trends, and  patterns.

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Factual  = aim to gather data from individuals about demographic characteristics and material situation Attitudinal   = aim to gather data from individuals about their attitudes, opinions, views, perceptions Social-psychological  = aim to gather data from individuals about their attitudes and link this to their behaviour Explanatory  = aim to gather data from individuals to test hypotheses, i.e. to gather data on two or more variables to see whether there is a relationship between them

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Research instrument  (= the specific tool used by the method to actually collect the data) you will use.  F or surveys, the questionnaire (mail, telephone, structured interview) most commonly used instrument.  Note that the design of the research instrument is informed by : research question / hypothesis conceptualisation and operationalisation of the variables and their attributes/values, how the   questions you ask in the instrument stem from how you have conceptualized and  operationalised  the concepts for study decisions on the type and format of questions  rules for clear question construction

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Establish regularities in attitudes, beliefs and behaviour Profile socio-economic characteristics Descriptive studies: measure incidence and trends Explanatory studies: explain behaviour and attitudes by given social characteristics  High control: validity and reliability as checks and balances

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When population size is unknown or small When sample members have insufficient knowledge, reflexivity or awareness of topic When doing exploratory research When doing retrospective research – on the past – reliant on memory When researching sensitive topics When interested in individual voice Costly; and requires statistical analytical skill (and computer programming facilities) Reality is not simply observed but actively negotiated

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From  whom / what researchers get the data needed to answer the research question .  Note that a  sample  is  a smaller set of cases from the larger research population which is included in the study.  In quantitative research, sampling is usually done in ways which ensure  representivity .

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Basic outline of sampling:    Identify the  research population . Define what sampling is. Explain the importance of sampling. Identify what  kind of sampling  you need to use: probability or non-probability and why. Identify a  specific sampling technique  and define it. Apply it to this research project;  how  will you employ it and why. Note the weaknesses of the sampling techniques you have employed.

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In recognizing the weaknesses of research methods and sampling methods, it does not necessitate (always, even most often) a complete change to your research methodology, methods or sampling.  No research project is perfect.  There are always limitations to your project.  What is important is to be able to account for your choice of method.  Justify your choices.  AND consider how you would respond to the criticisms that may be leveled at your project based on these limitations?

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Consideration of ethical and professional practice

This step could be placed anywhere in the process, because consideration of these issues must occur throughout the research process and not at any one particular point!  The key points to consider:  Clarify and define ethical issues. And by extension note that this is required of the professional researcher.  Identify and outline the three major ethical principles with respect to the research subjects. For each: Does it apply to your project? How and why? How would you address the issue?

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Pre-test  the questionnaire/interview to identify potential problems and make necessary modifications. Undertake a pilot study.   Administer  questionnaire/structured interview in exactly same way to ensure measurement is precise.  	Options include, self-administered via mail, dropping off; 	telephone; face-to face interview. Choice will be shaped 	by a number of factors, and there are advantages and 	disadvantages to each.  Replicate  the study to verify the results.

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(Sep. lecture next week)  Data management  = bring order and logic to the data, reduce it to manageable proportions. Various steps involved in doing so.  Data analysis  = making sense of the data (numbers) collected in fieldwork to identify their significance and meaning.  For quantitative research,  statistical analysis . Involves describing numbers, analyzing them and evaluating their significance.  Then researchers must develop an  argument out of this evidence , being aware of what can definitively be argued and what cannot. Link to the research question / hypothesis ! Return to  theory : corroboration, refutation, modification?

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Consideration of validity and reliability of the study

Note : consideration of these issues must occur throughout the research process and not at any one particular point! Consider  validity  = extent to which the research conclusions are supported by the research design Internal validity  = extent to which the design is able to isolate the variables and measure each of them separately. The better the operationalisation the more internally valid the study.  External validity  = extent to which the findings can be generalised to the larger research population. The more representative the sample the more externally valid the study.

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Consider  reliability  of the study- the extent to which the measure is consistent and dependable.  	Assuming no change has taken place, a reliable measure 	is one where the items in the research instrument 	produce the same results if the researcher measured the 	same group of individuals a subsequent time.

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Report writing and reporting the findings

Consider: audience format (thesis, journal article, chapter, book, PowerPoint) length, style structure dissemination

SOCL 3008 Researching Social Life Lecture 10: Quantitative research

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