Page 1 of 15 A Brief Introduction To Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy By Wayne Froggatt Third Ed.(this version Feb 2005) Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) is based on the concept that emotions and behaviours result from cog-
nitive processes; and that it is possible for human beings to modify such processes to achieve different ways of feel-
ing and behaving. REBT is one of a number of therapies that come under the heading ‘cognitive-behavioural’. In the mid-1950’s Dr. Albert Ellis, a clinical psy-
chologist trained in psychoanalysis, became disil-
lusioned with the slow progress of his clients. He observed that they tended to get better when they changed their ways of thinking about themselves, their problems, and the world. Ellis reasoned that therapy would progress faster if the focus was directly on the client’s beliefs, and thus was born the method now known as Rational Emotive Be-
haviour Therapy. REBT was originally called ‘Rational Ther-
apy’, soon changed to ‘Rational-Emotive Ther-
apy’ and again in the early 1990’s to ‘Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy’. REBT is one of a number of ‘cognitive-behavioural’ therapies, which, although developed separately, have many similarities – such as Cognitive Therapy (CT), developed by Psychiatrist Aaron Beck in the 1960’s. REBT and CT together form the basis of the family of psychotherapies known as ‘Cogni-
tive-Behaviour Therapy’. Over the past half-
century, REBT has developed significantly, and continues to change. Theory of causation REBT is not just a set of techniques – it is also a comprehensive theory of human behaviour. REBT proposes a ‘biopsychosocial’ explanation of cau-
sation – i.e. that a combination of biological, psy-
chological, and social factors are involved in the way humans feel and behave. The most basic premise of REBT, which it shares with other cognitive-behavioural theories, is that almost all human emotions and behaviours are the result of what people think, assume or believe (about themselves, other people, and the world in general). It is what people believe about situations they face – not the situations themselves – that de-
termines how they feel and behave. REBT, however, also argues that a person’s biology also affects their feelings and behaviours – an important point, as it is a reminder to the therapist that there are limitations to how far a human being can change. A person’s belief sys-
tem is seen to be a product of both biological in-
heritance and learning throughout life. A useful way to illustrate the role of cognition is by using Ellis’ ‘ABC’ model. In this framework ‘A’ represents an actual event or experience, and the person’s ‘inferences’ or interpretations as to what is happening. ‘B’ represents the ‘evaluative’ beliefs that follow from these inferences. ‘C’ represents the emotions and behaviours that fol-
low from those evaluative beliefs. Here is an example of an ‘emotional episode’, experienced by a person prone to depression who tends to misinterpret the actions of other people: A1. Activating event – what happened: Friend passed me in the street without ac-
knowledging me. A2. Inferences about what happened: He’s ignoring me. He doesn’t like me. B. Beliefs about A: I’m unacceptable as a friend – so I must be worthless as a person. (Evaluation) C. Reaction: Emotions: depressed. Behaviours: avoiding people generally.. 

Scene 1

Page 1 of 15 
A Brief Introduction To 
Rational Emotive 
Behaviour Therapy 
 
By Wayne Froggatt 
Third Ed.(this version Feb 2005) 
 
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) is based on the concept that emotions and behaviours result from cog-
nitive processes; and that it is possible for human beings to modify such processes to achieve different ways of feel-
ing and behaving. REBT is one of a number of therapies that come under the heading ‘cognitive-behavioural’. 
 
 
 
 
 
In the mid-1950’s Dr. Albert Ellis, a clinical psy-
chologist trained in psychoanalysis, became disil-
lusioned with the slow progress of his clients. He 
observed that they tended to get better when they 
changed their ways of thinking about themselves, 
their problems, and the world. Ellis reasoned that 
therapy would progress faster if the focus was 
directly on the client’s beliefs, and thus was born 
the method now known as Rational Emotive Be-
haviour Therapy. 
REBT was originally called ‘Rational Ther-
apy’, soon changed to ‘Rational-Emotive Ther-
apy’ and again in the early 1990’s to ‘Rational 
Emotive Behaviour Therapy’. REBT is one of a 
number of ‘cognitive-behavioural’ therapies, 
which, although developed separately, have many 
similarities – such as Cognitive Therapy (CT), 
developed by Psychiatrist Aaron Beck in the 
1960’s. REBT and CT together form the basis of 
the family of psychotherapies known as ‘Cogni-
tive-Behaviour Therapy’. Over the past half-
century, REBT has developed significantly, and 
continues to change. 
Theory of causation 
REBT is not just a set of techniques – it is also a 
comprehensive theory of human behaviour. REBT 
proposes a ‘biopsychosocial’ explanation of cau-
sation – i.e. that a combination of biological, psy-
chological, and social factors are involved in the 
way humans feel and behave. 
The most basic premise of REBT, which it 
shares with other cognitive-behavioural theories, is 
that almost all human emotions and behaviours are 
the result of what people think, assume or believe 
(about themselves, other people, and the world in 
general). It is what people believe about situations 
they face – not the situations themselves – that de-
termines how they feel and behave.  
REBT, however, also argues that a person’s 
biology also affects their feelings and behaviours 
– an important point, as it is a reminder to the 
therapist that there are limitations to how far a 
human being can change. A person’s belief sys-
tem is seen to be a product of both biological in-
heritance and learning throughout life. 
A useful way to illustrate the role of cognition 
is by using Ellis’ ‘ABC’ model. In this framework 
‘A’ represents an actual event or experience, and 
the person’s ‘inferences’ or interpretations as to 
what is happening. ‘B’ represents the ‘evaluative’ 
beliefs that follow from these inferences. ‘C’ 
represents the emotions and behaviours that fol-
low from those evaluative beliefs. 
Here is an example of an ‘emotional episode’, 
experienced by a person prone to depression who 
tends to misinterpret the actions of other people: 
A1. Activating event – what happened: 
Friend passed me in the street without ac-
knowledging me.  
A2. Inferences about what happened: 
He’s ignoring me. He doesn’t like me. 
B. Beliefs about A:  
I’m unacceptable as a friend – so I must be 
worthless as a person. (Evaluation) 
C. Reaction: 
Emotions: depressed. 
Behaviours: avoiding people generally.

Page 2 of 15 Note that ‘A’ alone does not cause ‘C’ – ‘A’ triggers off ‘B’, and ‘B’ then causes ‘C’. Also, ABC episodes do not stand alone: they run in chains, with a ‘C’ often becoming the ‘A’ of an-
other episode – we observe our own emotions and behaviours, and react to them. For instance, the person in the example above could observe their avoidance of other people, interpret this as weak, and engage in self-downing. Note, too, that most beliefs are outside con-
scious awareness. They are habitual or automatic, often consisting of underlying ‘rules’ about how the world and life should be. With practice, though, people can learn to uncover such subcon-
scious ‘core’ beliefs. Theory of change According to REBT, change can occur at different levels. Let’s say, for instance, that you are anx-
ious because you think someone is disapproving of you. At a superficial level you can feel better by altering your body chemistry (e.g. via exercise, dietary change or medication); by changing the situation (e.g. by avoiding contact with the other person); or by changing your inferences about the situation (for example, you make yourself feel less anxious by convincing yourself that the dis-
approval isn’t going to happen). For a person to go beyond feeling better to ac-
tually get better – that is, to achieve fundamental and lasting change – involves modifying the un-
derlying core beliefs that create difficulties for them in a range of situations. Using our example above, rather than convince yourself that disap-
proval isn’t going to happen, you accept that it might, but deal with your underlying core belief that you need approval and must not ever receive disapproval. REBT therapists accept that superficial change may sometimes be the more realistic option for some clients, but aim for fundamental change wherever possible. To achieve such change, REBT uses a range of cognitive, emotive and be-
havioural strategies (more about these later). What is irrational thinking? We have seen that what we think determines what we feel. But what types of thinking are problem-
atical for human beings? A definition To describe a belief as ‘irrational’ is to say that: 1. It blocks a person from achieving their goals, creates extreme emotions that persist and which distress and immobilise, and leads to behaviours that harm oneself, others, and one’s life in general. 2. It distorts reality (it is a misinterpretation of what is happening and is not supported by the available evidence); 3. It contains illogical ways of evaluating oneself, others, and the world: demandingness, awfulis-
ing, discomfort-intolerance and people-rating; When talking with clients, we often refer to beliefs as ‘self-defeating’ rather than ‘irrational’, to emphasise that the main reason for replacing a belief is because it negatively affects their lives. Two Types of Disturbance REBT suggests that human beings defeat or ‘dis-
turb’ themselves in two main ways: (1) by holding irrational beliefs about their ‘self’ (ego distur-
bance) or (2) by holding irrational beliefs about their emotional or physical comfort (discomfort disturbance). Frequently, the two go together – people may think irrationally about both their ‘selves’ and their circumstances – though one or the other will usually be predominant. Ego disturbance represents an upset to the self-image. It results from holding demands about one’s ‘self’, e.g. ‘I must … do well / not fail / get approval from others’; followed by negative self-
evaluations such as: ‘When I fail / get disapproval / etc. this proves I am no good’ and so on. These beliefs create ‘ego anxiety’ – emotional tension resulting from the perception that one’s ‘self’ or personal worth is threatened – and lead to other problems such as avoidance of situations where failure, disapproval, etc. might occur; looking to other people for acceptance; and unassertive behaviour through fear of what others may think. Discomfort disturbance results from demands about others (e.g. ‘People must treat me right’) and about the world (e.g. ‘The circumstances un-
der which I live must be the way I want’). Dis-
comfort disturbance comes in two slightly differ-
ent but related flavours: • Low frustration-tolerance (LFT) results from demands that frustration not happen, followed by catastrophising when it does. It is based on beliefs like: ‘The world owes me contentment and happiness;’ or: ‘Things should be as I want them to be, and I can’t stand it when they are not.’ • Low discomfort-tolerance (LDT) arises from demands that one not experience emotional or physical discomfort, with catastrophising when discomfort does occur. It is based on be-
liefs like: ‘I should be able to feel happy all the time;’ ‘I must be able to feel comfortable. 

Scene 2

Page 2 of 15 
Note that ‘A’ alone does not cause ‘C’ – ‘A’ 
triggers off ‘B’, and ‘B’ then causes ‘C’. Also, 
ABC episodes do not stand alone: they run in 
chains, with a ‘C’ often becoming the ‘A’ of an-
other episode – we observe our own emotions and 
behaviours, and react to them. For instance, the 
person in the example above could observe their 
avoidance of other people, interpret this as weak, 
and engage in self-downing. 
Note, too, that most beliefs are outside con-
scious awareness. They are habitual or automatic, 
often consisting of underlying ‘rules’ about how 
the world and life should be. With practice, 
though, people can learn to uncover such subcon-
scious ‘core’ beliefs. 
Theory of change 
According to REBT, change can occur at different 
levels. Let’s say, for instance, that you are anx-
ious because you think someone is disapproving 
of you. At a superficial level you can feel better 
by altering your body chemistry (e.g. via exercise, 
dietary change or medication); by changing the 
situation (e.g. by avoiding contact with the other 
person); or by changing your inferences about the 
situation (for example, you make yourself feel 
less anxious by convincing yourself that the dis-
approval isn’t going to happen). 
For a person to go beyond feeling better to ac-
tually get better – that is, to achieve fundamental 
and lasting change – involves modifying the un-
derlying core beliefs that create difficulties for 
them in a range of situations. Using our example 
above, rather than convince yourself that disap-
proval isn’t going to happen, you accept that it 
might, but deal with your underlying core belief 
that you need approval and must not ever receive 
disapproval.  
REBT therapists accept that superficial change 
may sometimes be the more realistic option for 
some clients, but aim for fundamental change 
wherever possible. To achieve such change, 
REBT uses a range of cognitive, emotive and be-
havioural strategies (more about these later).  
What is irrational thinking? 
We have seen that what we think determines what 
we feel. But what types of thinking are problem-
atical for human beings?  
A definition 
To describe a belief as ‘irrational’ is to say that: 
1. It blocks a person from achieving their goals, 
creates extreme emotions that persist and 
which distress and immobilise, and leads to 
behaviours that harm oneself, others, and one’s 
life in general. 
2. It distorts reality (it is a misinterpretation of 
what is happening and is not supported by the 
available evidence);  
3. It contains illogical ways of evaluating oneself, 
others, and the world: demandingness, awfulis-
ing, discomfort-intolerance and people-rating; 
When talking with clients, we often refer to 
beliefs as ‘self-defeating’ rather than ‘irrational’, 
to emphasise that the main reason for replacing a 
belief is because it negatively affects their lives. 
Two Types of Disturbance 
REBT suggests that human beings defeat or ‘dis-
turb’ themselves in two main ways: (1) by holding 
irrational beliefs about their ‘self’ (ego distur-
bance) or (2) by holding irrational beliefs about 
their emotional or physical comfort (discomfort 
disturbance). Frequently, the two go together – 
people may think irrationally about both their 
‘selves’ and their circumstances – though one or 
the other will usually be predominant. 
Ego disturbance represents an upset to the 
self-image. It results from holding demands about 
one’s ‘self’, e.g. ‘I must … do well / not fail / get 
approval from others’; followed by negative self-
evaluations such as: ‘When I fail / get disapproval 
/ etc. this proves I am no good’ and so on. These 
beliefs create ‘ego anxiety’ – emotional tension 
resulting from the perception that one’s ‘self’ or 
personal worth is threatened – and lead to other 
problems such as avoidance of situations where 
failure, disapproval, etc. might occur; looking to 
other people for acceptance; and unassertive 
behaviour through fear of what others may think.  
Discomfort disturbance results from demands 
about others (e.g. ‘People must treat me right’) 
and about the world (e.g. ‘The circumstances un-
der which I live must be the way I want’). Dis-
comfort disturbance comes in two slightly differ-
ent but related flavours: 
• Low frustration-tolerance (LFT) results from 
demands that frustration not happen, followed 
by catastrophising when it does. It is based on 
beliefs like: ‘The world owes me contentment 
and happiness;’ or: ‘Things should be as I 
want them to be, and I can’t stand it when 
they are not.’ 
• Low discomfort-tolerance (LDT) arises from 
demands that one not experience emotional or 
physical discomfort, with catastrophising 
when discomfort does occur. It is based on be-
liefs like: ‘I should be able to feel happy all 
the time;’ ‘I must be able to feel comfortable

Page 3 of 15 all of the time;’ ‘Discomfort and pain are aw-
ful and intolerable, and I must avoid them at all costs;’ ‘I must not feel bad;’ and so on. The two types – LFT and LDT – are similar and closely related (often one expression is used to refer to both). Discomfort disturbance leads to problems like: • ‘Discomfort anxiety’ (emotional tension re-
sulting from the perception that one’s comfort (or life) is threatened). • Worrying (‘because … would be awful, and I couldn’t stand it, I must worry about it in case it happens’). • Avoidance of events and circumstances that are seen as ‘too hard’ to bear or ‘too difficult’ to overcome. • Secondary disturbance (upsetting oneself about having a problem, e.g. becoming anx-
ious about being anxious, depressed about be-
ing depressed, and so on). • Short-range enjoyment – the seeking of im-
mediate pleasure or avoidance of pain at the cost of long-term stress – for example alcohol, drug and food abuse; watching television rather than exercising; practising unsafe sex; or overspending to feel better. • Procrastination – putting off difficult tasks or unpleasant situations. • Negativity and complaining – becoming dis-
tressed over small hindrances and setbacks, overconcerned with unfairness, and prone to making comparisons between one’s own and others’ circumstances. The rules people live by Underlying what we think in specific situations are what is known as ‘core beliefs’, which are underlying rules that guide how people react to the events and circumstances in their lives in gen-
eral. Ellis proposes that a small number of core beliefs underlie most unhelpful emotions and be-
haviours. Here is a sample list of such ‘rules for living’: 1. I need love and approval from those signifi-
cant to me – and I must avoid disapproval from any source. 2. To be worthwhile as a person I must achieve, succeed at whatever I do, and make no mis-
takes. 3. People should always do the right thing. When they behave obnoxiously, unfairly or selfishly, they must be blamed and punished. 4. Things must be the way I want them to be, otherwise life will be intolerable. 5. My unhappiness is caused by things that are outside my control – so there is little I can do to feel any better. 6. I must worry about things that could be dan-
gerous, unpleasant or frightening – otherwise they might happen. 7. Because they are too much to bear, I must avoid life’s difficulties, unpleasantness, and responsibilities. 8. Everyone needs to depend on someone stronger than themselves. 9. Events in my past are the cause of my prob-
lems – and they continue to influence my feelings and behaviours now. 10. I should become upset when other people have problems, and feel unhappy when they’re sad. 11. I shouldn’t have to feel discomfort and pain – I can’t stand them and must avoid them at all costs. 12. Every problem should have an ideal solution – and it’s intolerable when one can’t be found. Four types of evaluative belief All of the core beliefs listed above have a germ of truth in them. Are not love and approval good things to get? Is it not better to succeed, be treated well by others, and find ideal solutions? Note, though, the way most of the core beliefs are worded: all except a few are stated as demands – characterised by words like ‘should’, ‘must’, ‘need’. Some also contain several other types of belief we shall address shortly. REBT proposes that there are four types of evaluative thinking that are dysfunctional for human beings: Demandingness. Referred to colourfully by Ellis as ‘musturbation’, demandingness refers to the way people hold unconditional shoulds and absolutistic musts – believing that certain things must or must not happen, and that certain con-
ditions (for example success, love, or approval) are absolute necessities. Demandingness implies certain ‘Laws of the Universe’ that must be ad-
hered to. Demands can be directed both internally and outwardly. REBT suggests that there are three basic musts: 1. Demands about the self; 2. Demands about others; 3. Demands about the world. Demands about the self will lead to ego distur-
bance; demands about others and the world will lead primarily to discomfort disturbance. Also, as well as being involved with core beliefs, demands also occur with beliefs about specific situations.. 

Scene 3

Page 3 of 15 
all of the time;’ ‘Discomfort and pain are aw-
ful and intolerable, and I must avoid them at 
all costs;’ ‘I must not feel bad;’ and so on. 
The two types – LFT and LDT – are similar 
and closely related (often one expression is used 
to refer to both). Discomfort disturbance leads to 
problems like: 
• ‘Discomfort anxiety’ (emotional tension re-
sulting from the perception that one’s comfort 
(or life) is threatened). 
• Worrying (‘because … would be awful, and I 
couldn’t stand it, I must worry about it in case 
it happens’). 
• Avoidance of events and circumstances that 
are seen as ‘too hard’ to bear or ‘too difficult’ 
to overcome. 
• Secondary disturbance (upsetting oneself 
about having a problem, e.g. becoming anx-
ious about being anxious, depressed about be-
ing depressed, and so on). 
• Short-range enjoyment – the seeking of im-
mediate pleasure or avoidance of pain at the 
cost of long-term stress – for example alcohol, 
drug and food abuse; watching television 
rather than exercising; practising unsafe sex; 
or overspending to feel better. 
• Procrastination – putting off difficult tasks or 
unpleasant situations. 
• Negativity and complaining – becoming dis-
tressed over small hindrances and setbacks, 
overconcerned with unfairness, and prone to 
making comparisons between one’s own and 
others’ circumstances. 
The rules people live by 
Underlying what we think in specific situations 
are what is known as ‘core beliefs’, which are 
underlying rules that guide how people react to 
the events and circumstances in their lives in gen-
eral. Ellis proposes that a small number of core 
beliefs underlie most unhelpful emotions and be-
haviours. Here is a sample list of such ‘rules for 
living’: 
1. I need love and approval from those signifi-
cant to me – and I must avoid disapproval 
from any source. 
2. To be worthwhile as a person I must achieve, 
succeed at whatever I do, and make no mis-
takes. 
3. People should always do the right thing. 
When they behave obnoxiously, unfairly or 
selfishly, they must be blamed and punished. 
4. Things must be the way I want them to be, 
otherwise life will be intolerable. 
5. My unhappiness is caused by things that are 
outside my control – so there is little I can do 
to feel any better. 
6. I must worry about things that could be dan-
gerous, unpleasant or frightening – otherwise 
they might happen. 
7. Because they are too much to bear, I must 
avoid life’s difficulties, unpleasantness, and 
responsibilities. 
8. Everyone needs to depend on someone 
stronger than themselves. 
9. Events in my past are the cause of my prob-
lems – and they continue to influence my 
feelings and behaviours now. 
10. I should become upset when other people 
have problems, and feel unhappy when 
they’re sad. 
11. I shouldn’t have to feel discomfort and pain – I 
can’t stand them and must avoid them at all 
costs. 
12. Every problem should have an ideal solution – 
and it’s intolerable when one can’t be found. 
Four types of evaluative belief 
All of the core beliefs listed above have a germ of 
truth in them. Are not love and approval good 
things to get? Is it not better to succeed, be treated 
well by others, and find ideal solutions? Note, 
though, the way most of the core beliefs are 
worded: all except a few are stated as demands – 
characterised by words like ‘should’, ‘must’, 
‘need’. Some also contain several other types of 
belief we shall address shortly. REBT proposes 
that there are four types of evaluative thinking 
that are dysfunctional for human beings: 
Demandingness. Referred to colourfully by 
Ellis as ‘musturbation’, demandingness refers to 
the way people hold unconditional shoulds and 
absolutistic musts – believing that certain things 
must or must not happen, and that certain con-
ditions (for example success, love, or approval) 
are absolute necessities. Demandingness implies 
certain ‘Laws of the Universe’ that must be ad-
hered to. Demands can be directed both internally 
and outwardly. REBT suggests that there are three 
basic musts: 
1. Demands about the self; 
2. Demands about others; 
3. Demands about the world. 
Demands about the self will lead to ego distur-
bance; demands about others and the world will 
lead primarily to discomfort disturbance. Also, as 
well as being involved with core beliefs, demands 
also occur with beliefs about specific situations.

Page 4 of 15 For example, a general core belief like: ‘People should always behave in a correct and right fash-
ion’ may lead to the specific belief: ‘He should not have done what he did’. Arising out of the demands people place on themselves, others, and the world are three further types of evaluative thinking: awfulising, discom-
fort-intolerance, and self/other-rating. Awfulising occurs when we exaggerate the consequences of past, present or future events; seeing them as the worst that could happen. Aw-
fulising is characterised by words like ‘awful’, ‘terrible’, ‘horrible’. Discomfort intolerance, often referred to as ‘can’t-stand-it-itis’, is based on the idea that one cannot bear some circumstance or event. It often follows awfulising, and can fuel demands that certain things not happen. People-rating refers to the process of evaluat-
ing one’s entire self (or someone else’s); in other words, judging the total value or worth of a per-
son. It represents an overgeneralisation whereby a person evaluates a specific trait, behaviour or ac-
tion according to some standard of desirability or worth. They then apply the evaluation to their total person – eg. ‘I did a bad thing, therefore I am a bad person.’ People-rating can lead to self-
downing, depression, defensiveness, grandiosity, hostility, or overconcern with approval and disap-
proval, and is a key factor in ego disturbance. Note that in REBT, demandingness has tradition-
ally been seen as the main type of irrational think-
ing, with the other three types deriving from it. For example, you are only likely to rate yourself as ‘worthless’ for failing at something if you be-
lieve that you ‘must’ always succeed; or you would only be prone to regarding discomfort as unbearable because you believe that you ‘must’ not be uncomfortable. In my experience, it seems that there is almost always a demand at the root of a person’s emotional or behavioural problems; but some flexibility is appropriate for the few occa-
sions when no demand can be identified by the client or therapist. The Three Levels of Thinking Human beings appear to think at three levels: (1) Inferences; (2) Evaluations; and (3) Core beliefs. As previously described, every individual has a set of general ‘rules’ – usually subconscious – that determines how they react to life. When an event triggers off a train of thought, what you consciously think depends on the general rules you subconsciously apply to the event. Let’s say that a person holds the rule: ‘For me to be happy, my life must be safe and predict-
able.’ Such a core belief will lead them to be hy-
persensitive to any possibility of danger and over-
estimate the likelihood of things going wrong. Suppose they hear a noise in the night. Their hy-
persensitivity to danger leads them to infer that there is an intruder in the house. They then evalu-
ate this possibility as catastrophic and unbearable, which creates feelings of panic. REBT is mainly concerned with helping peo-
ple identify their underlying general rules (‘core beliefs’). This involves going beyond a person’s surface inferences to their evaluations, and from there deducing the core belief(s) on which they are likely to be operating. Inferences. In everyday life, events and cir-
cumstances trigger off inferences about what is ‘going on’ – that is, we make guesses about what we think has happened, is happening, or will be happening. Inferences are statements of ‘fact’ (or at least what we think are the facts – they can be true or false). In REBT, little time is spent on a client’s inferences – they are regarded as signifi-
cant only in the sense that they provide a window to the evaluative thinking. Evaluations. More significantly from the REBT perspective, as well as making inferences about things that happen, we go beyond the ‘facts’ to evaluate them in terms of what they mean to us. Evaluations are sometimes conscious, some-
times beneath awareness. Irrational evaluations consist of one or more of the four types of beliefs listed earlier: demandingness, awfulising, discom-
fort-intolerance, and self/other-rating. An evalua-
tion following on from the inference described in the previous section could be: ‘I need her to love me – because if she didn’t, this would prove I was worthless.’ Core beliefs. Guiding a person’s inferences and evaluations are their underlying, general core beliefs. An example of a general core belief that would apply to the inference and evaluation we are using as our example could be: ‘For me to be worthwhile as a person I must have someone who loves me unreservedly.’ Putting It All Together Here is an example (using the ABC model) to show how it all works: A. Your neighbour phones and asks if you will baby-sit for the rest of the day. You had al-
ready planned to catch up with some garden-
ing. You infer that: ‘If I say no, she will think badly of me.’. 

Scene 4

Page 4 of 15 
For example, a general core belief like: ‘People 
should always behave in a correct and right fash-
ion’ may lead to the specific belief: ‘He should 
not have done what he did’. 
Arising out of the demands people place on 
themselves, others, and the world are three further 
types of evaluative thinking: awfulising, discom-
fort-intolerance, and self/other-rating. 
Awfulising occurs when we exaggerate the 
consequences of past, present or future events; 
seeing them as the worst that could happen. Aw-
fulising is characterised by words like ‘awful’, 
‘terrible’, ‘horrible’. 
Discomfort intolerance, often referred to as 
‘can’t-stand-it-itis’, is based on the idea that one 
cannot bear some circumstance or event. It often 
follows awfulising, and can fuel demands that 
certain things not happen. 
People-rating refers to the process of evaluat-
ing one’s entire self (or someone else’s); in other 
words, judging the total value or worth of a per-
son. It represents an overgeneralisation whereby a 
person evaluates a specific trait, behaviour or ac-
tion according to some standard of desirability or 
worth. They then apply the evaluation to their 
total person – eg. ‘I did a bad thing, therefore I am 
a bad person.’ People-rating can lead to self-
downing, depression, defensiveness, grandiosity, 
hostility, or overconcern with approval and disap-
proval, and is a key factor in ego disturbance. 
Note that in REBT, demandingness has tradition-
ally been seen as the main type of irrational think-
ing, with the other three types deriving from it. 
For example, you are only likely to rate yourself 
as ‘worthless’ for failing at something if you be-
lieve that you ‘must’ always succeed; or you 
would only be prone to regarding discomfort as 
unbearable because you believe that you ‘must’ 
not be uncomfortable. In my experience, it seems 
that there is almost always a demand at the root of 
a person’s emotional or behavioural problems; but 
some flexibility is appropriate for the few occa-
sions when no demand can be identified by the 
client or therapist. 
The Three Levels of Thinking 
Human beings appear to think at three levels: (1) 
Inferences; (2) Evaluations; and (3) Core beliefs.  
As previously described, every individual has 
a set of general ‘rules’ – usually subconscious – 
that determines how they react to life. When an 
event triggers off a train of thought, what you 
consciously think depends on the general rules 
you subconsciously apply to the event. 
Let’s say that a person holds the rule: ‘For me 
to be happy, my life must be safe and predict-
able.’ Such a core belief will lead them to be hy-
persensitive to any possibility of danger and over-
estimate the likelihood of things going wrong. 
Suppose they hear a noise in the night. Their hy-
persensitivity to danger leads them to infer that 
there is an intruder in the house. They then evalu-
ate this possibility as catastrophic and unbearable, 
which creates feelings of panic. 
REBT is mainly concerned with helping peo-
ple identify their underlying general rules (‘core 
beliefs’). This involves going beyond a person’s 
surface inferences to their evaluations, and from 
there deducing the core belief(s) on which they 
are likely to be operating. 
Inferences. In everyday life, events and cir-
cumstances trigger off inferences about what is 
‘going on’ – that is, we make guesses about what 
we think has happened, is happening, or will be 
happening. Inferences are statements of ‘fact’ (or 
at least what we think are the facts – they can be 
true or false). In REBT, little time is spent on a 
client’s inferences – they are regarded as signifi-
cant only in the sense that they provide a window 
to the evaluative thinking.  
Evaluations. More significantly from the 
REBT perspective, as well as making inferences 
about things that happen, we go beyond the ‘facts’ 
to evaluate them in terms of what they mean to 
us. Evaluations are sometimes conscious, some-
times beneath awareness. Irrational evaluations 
consist of one or more of the four types of beliefs 
listed earlier: demandingness, awfulising, discom-
fort-intolerance, and self/other-rating. An evalua-
tion following on from the inference described in 
the previous section could be: ‘I need her to love 
me – because if she didn’t, this would prove I was 
worthless.’ 
Core beliefs. Guiding a person’s inferences 
and evaluations are their underlying, general core 
beliefs. An example of a general core belief that 
would apply to the inference and evaluation we 
are using as our example could be: ‘For me to be 
worthwhile as a person I must have someone who 
loves me unreservedly.’ 
Putting It All Together 
Here is an example (using the ABC model) to 
show how it all works: 
A. Your neighbour phones and asks if you will 
baby-sit for the rest of the day. You had al-
ready planned to catch up with some garden-
ing. You infer that: ‘If I say no, she will think 
badly of me.’

Page 5 of 15 B. You evaluate your inference: ‘I couldn’t stand to have her see me as selfish.’ Your inference and the evaluation that fol-
lows are the result of holding the core belief: ‘To feel OK about myself, I need to be liked, so I must avoid disapproval from any source.’ (an example of ego disturbance). C. You feel anxious and say yes. In summary, people view themselves and the world around them at three levels: (1) inferences, (2) evaluations, and (3) core beliefs. The thera-
pist’s main objective is to deal with the underly-
ing, semi-permanent, general ‘core beliefs’ that are the continuing cause of the client’s unwanted reactions. REBT places greater emphasis on dealing with evaluative-type thinking than do other cognitive-
behavioural approaches, which focus rather more on inferential thinking. (In fact, in REBT, the cli-
ent’s inferences are regarded as part of the ‘A’ rather than the ‘B’, whereas in general CBT infer-
ences are seen as part of the ‘B’). REBT espe-
cially underscores the centrality of demanding-
ness over other types of thinking. However, both REBT and general CBT are ultimately concerned with the underlying core beliefs. Secondary disturbance Another unique feature of REBT is its recognition of the importance of working with ‘secondary disturbances’, that is, problems about problems (e.g. feeling guilty about being angry, or anxious about becoming anxious). More about this later. HELPING PEOPLE CHANGE The steps involved in helping clients change can be broadly summarised as follows: 1. Help the client understand that emotions and behaviours are caused by beliefs and thinking. This may consist of a brief explanation fol-
lowed by assignment of some reading. 2. Show how the relevant beliefs may be uncov-
ered. The ABC format is invaluable here. Us-
ing an episode from the client’s own recent experience, the therapist notes the ‘C’, then the ‘A’. The client is asked to consider (at ‘B’): ‘What was I telling myself about ‘A’, to feel and behave the way I did at ‘C’? As the client develops understanding of the nature of irra-
tional thinking, this process of ‘filling in the gap’ will become easier. Such education may be achieved by reading, direct explanation, and by self-analysis with the therapist’s help and as homework between sessions. 3. Teach the client how to dispute and change the irrational beliefs, replacing them with more ra-
tional alternatives. Again, education will aid this. The ABC format is extended to include ‘D’ (Disputing irrational beliefs), ‘E’ (the new Effect the client wishes to achieve, i.e. new ways of feeling and behaving), and ‘F’ (Fur-
ther Action for the client to take). 4. Help the client get into action. Acting against irrational beliefs – for example, disputing the belief that disapproval is intolerable by delib-
erately doing something to attract it, then discovering that one survives – is an essential component of REBT. Its emphasis on both re-
thinking and action makes it a powerful tool for change. Such activities are usually referred to as ‘homework’. The Process of Therapy What follows is a summary of the main compo-
nents of an REBT intervention. Engage client 1. The first step is to build a relationship with the client. This can be achieved using the core conditions of empathy, warmth and respect. 2. Watch for ‘secondary disturbances’ about coming for help: self-downing over having the problem or needing assistance; and anxi-
ety about coming to the interview. 3. Finally, possibly the best way to engage a client for REBT is to demonstrate to them at an early stage that change is possible and that REBT is able to assist them to achieve this goal. Assess the problem, person, and situation Assessment will vary from person to person, but following are some of the most common areas that will be assessed as part of an REBT interven-
tion. 1. Start with the client’s view of what is wrong for them. 2. Check for any secondary disturbance: how does the client feel about having this problem? 3. Carry out a general assessment: determine the presence of any related clinical disorders, ob-
tain a personal and social history, assess the severity of the problem, note any relevant personality factors, and check for any non-
psychological causative factors: physical conditions; medications; substance abuse; lifestyle/environmental factors. Prepare the client for therapy 1. Clarify the treatment goals, ensuring these are concrete, specific and agreed to by both. 

Scene 5

Page 5 of 15 
B. You evaluate your inference: ‘I couldn’t stand 
to have her see me as selfish.’ 
Your inference and the evaluation that fol-
lows are the result of holding the core belief: 
‘To feel OK about myself, I need to be liked, 
so I must avoid disapproval from any source.’ 
(an example of ego disturbance). 
C. You feel anxious and say yes. 
In summary, people view themselves and the 
world around them at three levels: (1) inferences, 
(2) evaluations, and (3) core beliefs. The thera-
pist’s main objective is to deal with the underly-
ing, semi-permanent, general ‘core beliefs’ that 
are the continuing cause of the client’s unwanted 
reactions.  
REBT places greater emphasis on dealing with 
evaluative-type thinking than do other cognitive-
behavioural approaches, which focus rather more 
on inferential thinking. (In fact, in REBT, the cli-
ent’s inferences are regarded as part of the ‘A’ 
rather than the ‘B’, whereas in general CBT infer-
ences are seen as part of the ‘B’). REBT espe-
cially underscores the centrality of demanding-
ness over other types of thinking. However, both 
REBT and general CBT are ultimately concerned 
with the underlying core beliefs. 
Secondary disturbance 
Another unique feature of REBT is its recognition 
of the importance of working with ‘secondary 
disturbances’, that is, problems about problems 
(e.g. feeling guilty about being angry, or anxious 
about becoming anxious). More about this later. 
HELPING PEOPLE CHANGE 
The steps involved in helping clients change can 
be broadly summarised as follows: 
1. Help the client understand that emotions and 
behaviours are caused by beliefs and thinking. 
This may consist of a brief explanation fol-
lowed by assignment of some reading. 
2. Show how the relevant beliefs may be uncov-
ered. The ABC format is invaluable here. Us-
ing an episode from the client’s own recent 
experience, the therapist notes the ‘C’, then the 
‘A’. The client is asked to consider (at ‘B’): 
‘What was I telling myself about ‘A’, to feel 
and behave the way I did at ‘C’? As the client 
develops understanding of the nature of irra-
tional thinking, this process of ‘filling in the 
gap’ will become easier. Such education may 
be achieved by reading, direct explanation, and 
by self-analysis with the therapist’s help and 
as homework between sessions. 
3. Teach the client how to dispute and change the 
irrational beliefs, replacing them with more ra-
tional alternatives. Again, education will aid 
this. The ABC format is extended to include 
‘D’ (Disputing irrational beliefs), ‘E’ (the new 
Effect the client wishes to achieve, i.e. new 
ways of feeling and behaving), and ‘F’ (Fur-
ther Action for the client to take). 
4. Help the client get into action. Acting against 
irrational beliefs – for example, disputing the 
belief that disapproval is intolerable by delib-
erately doing something to attract it, then 
discovering that one survives – is an essential 
component of REBT. Its emphasis on both re-
thinking and action makes it a powerful tool 
for change. Such activities are usually referred 
to as ‘homework’. 
The Process of Therapy 
What follows is a summary of the main compo-
nents of an REBT intervention. 
Engage client 
1. The first step is to build a relationship with the 
client. This can be achieved using the core 
conditions of empathy, warmth and respect. 
2. Watch for ‘secondary disturbances’ about 
coming for help: self-downing over having 
the problem or needing assistance; and anxi-
ety about coming to the interview. 
3. 
Finally, possibly the best way to engage a client 
for REBT is to demonstrate to them at an early 
stage that change is possible and that REBT is 
able to assist them to achieve this goal. 
Assess the problem, person, and situation 
Assessment will vary from person to person, but 
following are some of the most common areas 
that will be assessed as part of an REBT interven-
tion. 
1. Start with the client’s view of what is wrong 
for them. 
2. Check for any secondary disturbance: how 
does the client feel about having this problem? 
3. Carry out a general assessment: determine the 
presence of any related clinical disorders, ob-
tain a personal and social history, assess the 
severity of the problem, note any relevant 
personality factors, and check for any non-
psychological causative factors: physical 
conditions; medications; substance abuse; 
lifestyle/environmental factors. 
Prepare the client for therapy 
1. Clarify the treatment goals, ensuring these 
are concrete, specific and agreed to by both

Page 6 of 15 client and therapist; and assess the client’s motivation to change. 2. Introduce discussion about the basics of REBT, including the biopsychosocial model of causation. 3. Discuss the approaches to be used and impli-
cations of treatment, then develop a contract. Implement the treatment programme Most of the sessions will occur in the implemen-
tation phase, using activities like the following: • Analysing specific episodes where the target problem(s) occur, ascertaining the beliefs in-
volved, changing them, and developing home-
work (I call this ‘Rational Analysis’). • Developing behavioural assignments to re-
duce fears or modify ways of behaving. • Supplementary strategies & techniques as ap-
propriate, e.g. relaxation training, interper-
sonal skills training, etc. Evaluate progress Toward the end of the intervention it will usually be desirable to check whether improvements are due to significant changes in the client’s thinking, or simply to a fortuitous improvement in their external circumstances. Prepare the client for termination It is usually wise to prepare the client to cope with setbacks. Many people, after a period of wellness, think they are ‘cured’ for life. Consequently, when they slip back and discover their old prob-
lems are still present to some degree, they are likely to despair and give up working on them-
selves altogether. Warn that relapse is likely for many emotional and behavioural problems and ensure they know what to do when their symp-
toms return. Discuss their views on asking for help if needed in the future. Deal with any irra-
tional beliefs about coming back, like: ‘I should be cured for ever’, or: ‘The therapist would think I was a failure if I came back for more help’. A typical REBT interview What happens in a typical REBT interview? Here is how an interview based on the ABC model would usually progress: 1. Review the previous session’s homework. Re-
inforce gains and learning. If the homework was not completed, help the client identify and deal with the blocks involved. 2. Establish the target problem to work on in this session. 3. Assess the ‘A’: what happened, when did it last occur? What did the client infer was happen-
ing or would result from what happened? 4. Assess the ‘C’: specifically what unwanted emotion did the client experience, and how strong was it? 5. Identify and assess any secondary emotional problems (inappropriate negative emotions about having the problem, for example shame about feeling grief). 6. Identify the beliefs (‘B’) causing the unwanted reactions, especially demandingness, awfulis-
ing, discomfort-intolerance, and people-rating. 7. Connect ‘B’ & ‘C’ (ensure the client sees that their unwanted reaction resulted from their thoughts). 8. Clarify and agree on the goal (‘E’): how does the client wish to feel (and behave) when next confronted with a similar ‘A’? 9. Help the client dispute their beliefs, using a range of techniques. Replace beliefs that are agreed to be irrational. 10. Plan next homework assignments (‘F’) to en-
able the client to put their new rational beliefs into practice. Identify and deal with any poten-
tial blocks to completion of the homework. Techniques Used In REBT Ellis recommends a ‘selectively eclectic’ ap-
proach to therapy, using strategies from REBT and other approaches, but ensuring the strategy is compatible with REBT theory. Following are some examples of procedures in common use. Cognitive techniques Rational analysis: analyses of specific episodes to teach the client how to uncover and dispute irra-
tional beliefs (as described earlier) are usually done in-session at first; then, as the client gets the idea, they can be carried out as homework. Double-standard dispute: If the client is hold-
ing a ‘should’ or is self-downing about their be-
haviour, ask whether they would globally rate another person (e.g. best friend, therapist, etc.) for doing the same thing, or recommend that person hold their demanding core belief. When they say ‘No’, help them see that they are holding a dou-
ble-standard. This is especially useful with resis-
tant beliefs which the client finds hard to give up. Catastrophe scale: this is a useful technique to get awfulising into perspective. On a whiteboard or sheet of paper, draw a line down one side. Put 100% at the top, 0% at the bottom, and 10% in-
tervals in between. Ask the client to rate whatever. 

Scene 6

Page 6 of 15 
client and therapist; and assess the client’s 
motivation to change. 
2. Introduce discussion about the basics of 
REBT, including the biopsychosocial model 
of causation. 
3. Discuss the approaches to be used and impli-
cations of treatment, then develop a contract. 
Implement the treatment programme 
Most of the sessions will occur in the implemen-
tation phase, using activities like the following: 
• Analysing specific episodes where the target 
problem(s) occur, ascertaining the beliefs in-
volved, changing them, and developing home-
work (I call this ‘Rational Analysis’). 
• Developing behavioural assignments to re-
duce fears or modify ways of behaving. 
• Supplementary strategies & techniques as ap-
propriate, e.g. relaxation training, interper-
sonal skills training, etc. 
Evaluate progress 
Toward the end of the intervention it will usually 
be desirable to check whether improvements are 
due to significant changes in the client’s thinking, 
or simply to a fortuitous improvement in their 
external circumstances. 
Prepare the client for termination 
It is usually wise to prepare the client to cope with 
setbacks. Many people, after a period of wellness, 
think they are ‘cured’ for life. Consequently, 
when they slip back and discover their old prob-
lems are still present to some degree, they are 
likely to despair and give up working on them-
selves altogether. Warn that relapse is likely for 
many emotional and behavioural problems and 
ensure they know what to do when their symp-
toms return. Discuss their views on asking for 
help if needed in the future. Deal with any irra-
tional beliefs about coming back, like: ‘I should 
be cured for ever’, or: ‘The therapist would think 
I was a failure if I came back for more help’. 
A typical REBT interview 
What happens in a typical REBT interview? Here 
is how an interview based on the ABC model 
would usually progress: 
1. Review the previous session’s homework. Re-
inforce gains and learning. If the homework 
was not completed, help the client identify and 
deal with the blocks involved. 
2. Establish the target problem to work on in this 
session. 
3. Assess the ‘A’: what happened, when did it last 
occur? What did the client infer was happen-
ing or would result from what happened? 
4. Assess the ‘C’: specifically what unwanted 
emotion did the client experience, and how 
strong was it?  
5. Identify and assess any secondary emotional 
problems (inappropriate negative emotions 
about having the problem, for example shame 
about feeling grief). 
6. Identify the beliefs (‘B’) causing the unwanted 
reactions, especially demandingness, awfulis-
ing, discomfort-intolerance, and people-rating. 
7. Connect ‘B’ & ‘C’ (ensure the client sees that 
their unwanted reaction resulted from their 
thoughts). 
8. Clarify and agree on the goal (‘E’): how does 
the client wish to feel (and behave) when next 
confronted with a similar ‘A’? 
9. Help the client dispute their beliefs, using a 
range of techniques. Replace beliefs that are 
agreed to be irrational. 
10. Plan next homework assignments (‘F’) to en-
able the client to put their new rational beliefs 
into practice. Identify and deal with any poten-
tial blocks to completion of the homework. 
Techniques Used In REBT 
Ellis recommends a ‘selectively eclectic’ ap-
proach to therapy, using strategies from REBT 
and other approaches, but ensuring the strategy is 
compatible with REBT theory. Following are 
some examples of procedures in common use. 
Cognitive techniques 
Rational analysis: analyses of specific episodes 
to teach the client how to uncover and dispute irra-
tional beliefs (as described earlier) are usually done 
in-session at first; then, as the client gets the idea, 
they can be carried out as homework. 
Double-standard dispute: If the client is hold-
ing a ‘should’ or is self-downing about their be-
haviour, ask whether they would globally rate 
another person (e.g. best friend, therapist, etc.) for 
doing the same thing, or recommend that person 
hold their demanding core belief. When they say 
‘No’, help them see that they are holding a dou-
ble-standard. This is especially useful with resis-
tant beliefs which the client finds hard to give up. 
Catastrophe scale: this is a useful technique to 
get awfulising into perspective. On a whiteboard 
or sheet of paper, draw a line down one side. Put 
100% at the top, 0% at the bottom, and 10% in-
tervals in between. Ask the client to rate whatever

Page 7 of 15 it is they are catastrophising about, and insert that item into the chart in the appropriate place. Then, fill in the other levels with items the client thinks apply to those levels. You might, for example, put 0%: ‘Having a quiet cup of coffee at home’, 20%: ‘Having to mow the lawns when the rugby is on television’, 70%: being burgled, 90%: being diag-
nosed with cancer, 100%: being burned alive, and so on. Finally, have the client progressively alter the position of their feared item on the scale, until it is in perspective in relation to the other items. Devil’s advocate: this useful and effective technique (also known as reverse role-playing) is designed to get the client arguing against their own dysfunctional belief. The therapist role-plays adopting the client’s belief and vigorously argues for it; while the client tries to ‘convince’ the therapist that the belief is dysfunctional. It is es-
pecially useful when the client sees that a belief is irrational, but needs help to consolidate that un-
derstanding. (NB: as with all techniques, be sure to explain it to the client before using it). Reframing: another strategy for getting bad events into perspective is to re-evaluate them as ‘disappointing’, ‘concerning’, or ‘uncomfortable’ rather than as ‘awful’ or ‘unbearable’. A variation of reframing is to help the client see that even negative events almost always have a positive side to them, listing all the positives the client can think of (NB: this needs care so that it does not come across as suggesting that a bad experience is really a ‘good’ one). Imagery techniques Time projection: this technique is designed to show that one’s life, and the world in general, continue after a feared or unwanted event has come and gone. Ask the client to visualise the unwanted event occurring, then imagine going forward in time a week, then a month, then six months, then a year, two years, and so on, consid-
ering how they will be feeling at each of these points in time. They will thus be able to see that life will go on, even though they may need to make some adjustments. The ‘blow-up’ technique: this is a variation of ‘worst-case’ imagery, coupled with the use of hu-
mour to provide a vivid and memorable experience for the client. It involves asking the client to imag-
ine whatever it is they fear happening, then blow it up out of all proportion till they cannot help but be amused by it. Laughing at fears will help get con-
trol of them. Again, the use of this technique re-
quires sensitivity and appropriate timing. Behavioural techniques One of the best ways to check out and modify a belief is to act. Clients can be encouraged, for instance, to check out the evidence for their fears and to act in ways that disprove them. Exposure: possibly the most common behav-
ioural strategy used in REBT involves clients en-
tering feared situations they would normally avoid. Such ‘exposure’ is deliberate, planned and carried out using cognitive and other coping skills. The purposes are to (1) test the validity of one’s fears (e.g. that rejection could not be sur-
vived); (2) de-awfulise them (by seeing that catas-
trophe does not ensue); (3) develop confidence in one’s ability to cope (by successfully managing one’s reactions); and (4) increase tolerance for discomfort (by progressively discovering that it is bearable). Shame attacking: this type of exposure in-
volves confronting the fear of shame by deliber-
ately acting in ways the client anticipates may attract disapproval (while, at the same time, using cognitive and emotive techniques to feel only concerned or disappointed). For example, you could suggest that the client switch their shoes to the wrong feet then walk round the office building with you for ten minutes or so, at the same time disputing their shame-inducing thinking. Risk-taking: the purpose is to challenge beliefs that certain behaviours are too dangerous to risk, when reason says that while the outcome is not guaranteed they are worth the chance. For exam-
ple, if the client has trouble with perfectionism or fear of failure, they might start tasks where there is a reasonable chance of failing or not matching their expectations. Or someone with a fear of re-
jection might talk to an attractive person at a party or ask someone for a date. Paradoxical behaviour: when a client wishes to change a dysfunctional tendency, encourage them to deliberately behave in a way contradictory to the tendency. Emphasise the importance of not waiting until they ‘feel like’ doing it: practising the new behaviour – even though it is not spontaneous – will gradually internalise the new habit. Stepping out of character: is one common type of paradoxical behaviour. For example, a perfec-
tionistic person could deliberately do some things to less than their usual standard; or someone who believes that to care for oneself is ‘selfish’ could indulge in a personal treat each day for a week. Postponing gratification is commonly used to combat low frustration-tolerance by deliberately delaying smoking, eating sweets, using alcohol, sexual activity, etc.. 

Scene 7

Page 7 of 15 
it is they are catastrophising about, and insert that 
item into the chart in the appropriate place. Then, 
fill in the other levels with items the client thinks 
apply to those levels. You might, for example, put 
0%: ‘Having a quiet cup of coffee at home’, 20%: 
‘Having to mow the lawns when the rugby is on 
television’, 70%: being burgled, 90%: being diag-
nosed with cancer, 100%: being burned alive, and 
so on. Finally, have the client progressively alter 
the position of their feared item on the scale, until 
it is in perspective in relation to the other items. 
Devil’s advocate: this useful and effective 
technique (also known as reverse role-playing) is 
designed to get the client arguing against their 
own dysfunctional belief. The therapist role-plays 
adopting the client’s belief and vigorously argues 
for it; while the client tries to ‘convince’ the 
therapist that the belief is dysfunctional. It is es-
pecially useful when the client sees that a belief is 
irrational, but needs help to consolidate that un-
derstanding. (NB: as with all techniques, be sure 
to explain it to the client before using it). 
Reframing: another strategy for getting bad 
events into perspective is to re-evaluate them as 
‘disappointing’, ‘concerning’, or ‘uncomfortable’ 
rather than as ‘awful’ or ‘unbearable’. A variation 
of reframing is to help the client see that even 
negative events almost always have a positive 
side to them, listing all the positives the client can 
think of (NB: this needs care so that it does not 
come across as suggesting that a bad experience is 
really a ‘good’ one). 
Imagery techniques 
Time projection: this technique is designed to 
show that one’s life, and the world in general, 
continue after a feared or unwanted event has 
come and gone. Ask the client to visualise the 
unwanted event occurring, then imagine going 
forward in time a week, then a month, then six 
months, then a year, two years, and so on, consid-
ering how they will be feeling at each of these 
points in time. They will thus be able to see that 
life will go on, even though they may need to 
make some adjustments. 
The ‘blow-up’ technique: this is a variation of 
‘worst-case’ imagery, coupled with the use of hu-
mour to provide a vivid and memorable experience 
for the client. It involves asking the client to imag-
ine whatever it is they fear happening, then blow it 
up out of all proportion till they cannot help but be 
amused by it. Laughing at fears will help get con-
trol of them. Again, the use of this technique re-
quires sensitivity and appropriate timing. 
Behavioural techniques 
One of the best ways to check out and modify a 
belief is to act. Clients can be encouraged, for 
instance, to check out the evidence for their fears 
and to act in ways that disprove them. 
Exposure: possibly the most common behav-
ioural strategy used in REBT involves clients en-
tering feared situations they would normally 
avoid. Such ‘exposure’ is deliberate, planned and 
carried out using cognitive and other coping 
skills. The purposes are to (1) test the validity of 
one’s fears (e.g. that rejection could not be sur-
vived); (2) de-awfulise them (by seeing that catas-
trophe does not ensue); (3) develop confidence in 
one’s ability to cope (by successfully managing 
one’s reactions); and (4) increase tolerance for 
discomfort (by progressively discovering that it is 
bearable).  
Shame attacking: this type of exposure in-
volves confronting the fear of shame by deliber-
ately acting in ways the client anticipates may 
attract disapproval (while, at the same time, using 
cognitive and emotive techniques to feel only 
concerned or disappointed). For example, you 
could suggest that the client switch their shoes to 
the wrong feet then walk round the office building 
with you for ten minutes or so, at the same time 
disputing their shame-inducing thinking. 
Risk-taking: the purpose is to challenge beliefs 
that certain behaviours are too dangerous to risk, 
when reason says that while the outcome is not 
guaranteed they are worth the chance. For exam-
ple, if the client has trouble with perfectionism or 
fear of failure, they might start tasks where there 
is a reasonable chance of failing or not matching 
their expectations. Or someone with a fear of re-
jection might talk to an attractive person at a party 
or ask someone for a date. 
Paradoxical behaviour: when a client wishes to 
change a dysfunctional tendency, encourage them 
to deliberately behave in a way contradictory to the 
tendency. Emphasise the importance of not waiting 
until they ‘feel like’ doing it: practising the new 
behaviour – even though it is not spontaneous – 
will gradually internalise the new habit. 
Stepping out of character: is one common type 
of paradoxical behaviour. For example, a perfec-
tionistic person could deliberately do some things 
to less than their usual standard; or someone who 
believes that to care for oneself is ‘selfish’ could 
indulge in a personal treat each day for a week. 
Postponing gratification is commonly used to 
combat low frustration-tolerance by deliberately 
delaying smoking, eating sweets, using alcohol, 
sexual activity, etc.

Page 8 of 15 Homework Probably the most important REBT strategy is homework. This can include such activities as reading, self-help exercises, and experiential ac-
tivities. Therapy sessions are really ‘training ses-
sions’, between which the client tries out and uses what they have learned. At the end of this article there is an example of a homework format which clients can use to analyse specific episodes where they feel or behave in the ways they are trying to change. Applications of REBT REBT has been successfully used to help people with a range of clinical and non-clinical problems, using a variety of modalities. Clinical applications Typical clinical applications include • Depression • Anxiety disorders, including obsessive-
compulsive disorder, agoraphobia, specific phobias, generalised anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, etc. • Eating disorders, addictions, impulse control disorders • Anger management, antisocial behaviour, per-
sonality disorders • Sexual abuse recovery • Adjustment to chronic health problem, physi-
cal disability, or mental disorder • Pain management • General stress management • Child or adolescent behaviour disorders • Relationship and family problems Non-clinical applications • Personal growth – REBT theory contains de-
tailed principles (for example, enlightened self-interest, self-acceptance, risk-taking) which can be used to help people develop and act on a more functional philosophy of life (see: Froggatt, W. (1997). GoodStress. Auck-
land: HarperColllins). • Workplace effectiveness – DiMattia (DiMat-
tia & Ijzermans, 1996) has developed a varia-
tion of REBT known as Rational Effective-
ness Training which is increasingly being used in the workplace to aid worker and managerial effectiveness. Modalities The most common use of REBT is with individual clients, but this is followed closely by group work, for which REBT is eminently suited. REBT is also frequently used with couples, and there is a grow-
ing literature on REBT family therapy. A newer development is the use of REBT in non-clinical settings in the workplace, as described above. Suitable client groups REBT has been developed over the years for use with individuals, couples, and families; adults and children; people with mental health problems; people with physical illnesses, disabilities, and terminal illnesses; different cultural groups; and people of varying intellectual ability, including those with learning impairments. Practice Principles of REBT • The basic aim of REBT is to leave clients at the completion of therapy with freedom to choose their emotions, behaviours and lifestyle (within physical, social and economic re-
straints); and with a method of self-
observation and personal change that will help them maintain their gains. • Not all unpleasant emotions are seen as dys-
functional. Nor are all pleasant emotions func-
tional. REBT aims not at ‘positive thinking’; but rather at realistic thoughts, emotions, and behaviours that are in proportion to the events and circumstances an individual experiences. • There is no ‘one way’ to practice REBT. It is ‘selectively eclectic’. Though it has techniques of its own, it also borrows from other ap-
proaches and allows practitioners to use their imagination. There are some basic assump-
tions and principles, but otherwise it can be varied to suit one’s own style and client group. • REBT is educative and collaborative. Clients learn the therapy and how to use it on them-
selves (rather than have it ‘done to them’). The therapist provides the training – the client car-
ries it out. There are no hidden agendas – all procedures are clearly explained to the client. Therapist and client together design homework assignments. • The relationship between therapist and client is very important, but is seen as existing to fa-
cilitate therapeutic work – rather than being the therapy itself. The therapist shows empa-
thy, unconditional acceptance, and encour-
agement; but is careful to avoid activities that create dependency or strengthen any ‘needs’ for approval. • While REBT is active-directive, the therapist almost always works within the client’s value. 

Scene 8

Page 8 of 15 
Homework 
Probably the most important REBT strategy is 
homework. This can include such activities as 
reading, self-help exercises, and experiential ac-
tivities. Therapy sessions are really ‘training ses-
sions’, between which the client tries out and uses 
what they have learned. At the end of this article 
there is an example of a homework format which 
clients can use to analyse specific episodes where 
they feel or behave in the ways they are trying to 
change. 
Applications of REBT 
REBT has been successfully used to help people 
with a range of clinical and non-clinical problems, 
using a variety of modalities. 
Clinical applications 
Typical clinical applications include 
• 
Depression 
• 
Anxiety 
disorders, 
including 
obsessive-
compulsive disorder, agoraphobia, specific 
phobias, generalised anxiety, posttraumatic 
stress disorder, etc. 
• 
Eating disorders, addictions, impulse control 
disorders 
• 
Anger management, antisocial behaviour, per-
sonality disorders 
• 
Sexual abuse recovery 
• 
Adjustment to chronic health problem, physi-
cal disability, or mental disorder 
• 
Pain management 
• 
General stress management 
• 
Child or adolescent behaviour disorders 
• 
Relationship and family problems 
Non-clinical applications 
• 
Personal growth – REBT theory contains de-
tailed principles (for example, enlightened 
self-interest, 
self-acceptance, 
risk-taking) 
which can be used to help people develop and 
act on a more functional philosophy of life 
(see: Froggatt, W. (1997). GoodStress. Auck-
land: HarperColllins). 
• 
Workplace effectiveness – DiMattia (DiMat-
tia & Ijzermans, 1996) has developed a varia-
tion of REBT known as Rational Effective-
ness Training which is increasingly being 
used in the workplace to aid worker and 
managerial effectiveness. 
Modalities 
The most common use of REBT is with individual 
clients, but this is followed closely by group work, 
for which REBT is eminently suited. REBT is also 
frequently used with couples, and there is a grow-
ing literature on REBT family therapy. A newer 
development is the use of REBT in non-clinical 
settings in the workplace, as described above. 
Suitable client groups 
REBT has been developed over the years for use 
with individuals, couples, and families; adults and 
children; people with mental health problems; 
people with physical illnesses, disabilities, and 
terminal illnesses; different cultural groups; and 
people of varying intellectual ability, including 
those with learning impairments. 
Practice Principles of REBT 
• The basic aim of REBT is to leave clients at 
the completion of therapy with freedom to 
choose their emotions, behaviours and lifestyle 
(within physical, social and economic re-
straints); and with a method of self-
observation and personal change that will help 
them maintain their gains. 
• Not all unpleasant emotions are seen as dys-
functional. Nor are all pleasant emotions func-
tional. REBT aims not at ‘positive thinking’; 
but rather at realistic thoughts, emotions, and 
behaviours that are in proportion to the events 
and circumstances an individual experiences. 
• There is no ‘one way’ to practice REBT. It is 
‘selectively eclectic’. Though it has techniques 
of its own, it also borrows from other ap-
proaches and allows practitioners to use their 
imagination. There are some basic assump-
tions and principles, but otherwise it can be 
varied to suit one’s own style and client group. 
• REBT is educative and collaborative. Clients 
learn the therapy and how to use it on them-
selves (rather than have it ‘done to them’). The 
therapist provides the training – the client car-
ries it out. There are no hidden agendas – all 
procedures are clearly explained to the client. 
Therapist and client together design homework 
assignments. 
• The relationship between therapist and client 
is very important, but is seen as existing to fa-
cilitate therapeutic work – rather than being 
the therapy itself. The therapist shows empa-
thy, unconditional acceptance, and encour-
agement; but is careful to avoid activities that 
create dependency or strengthen any ‘needs’ 
for approval. 
• While REBT is active-directive, the therapist 
almost always works within the client’s value

Page 9 of 15 system. New ways of thinking are developed collaboratively. • An individual’s past is seen as relevant in that this is where much irrational thinking origi-
nates; but because uncovering the past is not usually helpful in changing how a person re-
acts in the present, REBT therapists do not en-
gage in very much ‘archaeological’ explora-
tion. • REBT is brief and time-limited. It commonly involves five to thirty sessions over one to eighteen months. The pace of therapy is brisk. A minimum of time is spent on acquiring background and historical information: it is task-oriented and focuses on problem-solving in the present. • REBT is a method of psychotherapy, so the emphasis is on helping people change how they feel and behave in reaction to life events. However, such personal change may be a prelude to enabling a person to more effec-
tively seek environmental change. Conse-
quently, REBT helps people change them-
selves and their unwanted circumstances. • A common criticism of psychotherapy is that it may encourage people to become self-centred. REBT avoids this by teaching several princi-
ples, for example ‘enlightened self-interest’ that encourage individuals to attend to both their own interests and those of other people. • REBT tends to be humanistic, anti-moralistic, and scientific. Human beings are seen as the arbiters of what is right or wrong for them. Behaviour is viewed as functional or dysfunc-
tional, rather than as good or evil. REBT is based on research and the principles of logic and empiricism, and encourages scientific rather than ‘magical’ ways of thinking. • Finally, the emphasis is on profound and last-
ing change in the underlying belief system of the client, rather than simply eliminating the presenting symptoms. The client is left with self-help techniques that enable coping in the long-term future. UNIQUE FEATURES OF REBT REBT has a number of characteristics that are original to the approach – here is a selection: Absence of Self-Evaluation REBT has a unique approach to the common therapeutic problem of ‘low self-esteem’. Many therapists would try to help people with low self-esteem by encouraging them to regard themselves as ‘worthy’ human beings. REBT therapist takes a radically different approach – encouraging the client to throw out the idea of self-esteem entirely! This involves giving up the practice of trying to judge human beings as ‘wor-
thy’ (a notion, incidentally, that implies it is pos-
sible for them to be ‘unworthy’!); and getting rid of the idea that people somehow need ‘value’ or ‘esteem’. The client is, instead, urged to (1) aim for un-
conditional self-acceptance – irrespective of their traits and behaviours or how other people see them; (2) acknowledge that they simply exist – and choose to stay alive, seek joy, and avoid pain; and (3) instead of rating their self, to concentrate on rating their actions or traits (and the effects of these) in terms of how they help achieve the cli-
ent’s goals. Secondary disturbances As mentioned earlier, REBT points out that hu-
man beings frequently develop problems about their problems. By creating these ‘secondary’ problems, they complicate their emotional and behavioural difficulties. Guilt is a common secondary disturbance: for instance, people with anger problems may down themselves because they have trouble controlling their rage. Sufferers of chronic anxiety frequently get anxious about getting anxious (the ‘fear of fear’). Clients in therapy may become despondent because they are not overcoming their problems as quickly as they think they ‘should’ be able to. Sometimes, for therapy to be effective, the secondary disturbance needs to be addressed be-
fore the primary problem becomes accessible to change. Discomfort Disturbance v. Ego Disturbance As noted above, REBT suggests that global evaluation of the ‘self’ will often lead to emo-
tional disturbance. This is referred to as ‘ego disturbance’ – a concept that exists (in various forms) in probably most other therapeutic orienta-
tions, under such terms as ‘low self-esteem’, ‘poor self-image’ and the like. REBT, however, uniquely argues that there is another type of disturbance of equal or even greater significance: ‘discomfort disturbance’, usually referred to as ‘low discomfort-tolerance’ (LDT), or ‘low frustration-tolerance’ (LFT). This concept explains why people may overreact to unpleasant life experiences, to frustration, and to their own bad feelings (thus developing ‘secon-
dary’ problems); or will sabotage their therapy. 

Scene 9

Page 9 of 15 
system. New ways of thinking are developed 
collaboratively. 
• An individual’s past is seen as relevant in that 
this is where much irrational thinking origi-
nates; but because uncovering the past is not 
usually helpful in changing how a person re-
acts in the present, REBT therapists do not en-
gage in very much ‘archaeological’ explora-
tion. 
• REBT is brief and time-limited. It commonly 
involves five to thirty sessions over one to 
eighteen months. The pace of therapy is brisk. 
A minimum of time is spent on acquiring 
background and historical information: it is 
task-oriented and focuses on problem-solving 
in the present. 
• REBT is a method of psychotherapy, so the 
emphasis is on helping people change how 
they feel and behave in reaction to life events. 
However, such personal change may be a 
prelude to enabling a person to more effec-
tively seek environmental change. Conse-
quently, REBT helps people change them-
selves and their unwanted circumstances. 
• A common criticism of psychotherapy is that it 
may encourage people to become self-centred. 
REBT avoids this by teaching several princi-
ples, for example ‘enlightened self-interest’ 
that encourage individuals to attend to both 
their own interests and those of other people. 
• REBT tends to be humanistic, anti-moralistic, 
and scientific. Human beings are seen as the 
arbiters of what is right or wrong for them. 
Behaviour is viewed as functional or dysfunc-
tional, rather than as good or evil. REBT is 
based on research and the principles of logic 
and empiricism, and encourages scientific 
rather than ‘magical’ ways of thinking. 
• Finally, the emphasis is on profound and last-
ing change in the underlying belief system of 
the client, rather than simply eliminating the 
presenting symptoms. The client is left with 
self-help techniques that enable coping in the 
long-term future. 
UNIQUE FEATURES OF REBT 
REBT has a number of characteristics that are 
original to the approach – here is a selection: 
Absence of Self-Evaluation 
REBT has a unique approach to the common 
therapeutic problem of ‘low self-esteem’.  
Many therapists would try to help people with 
low self-esteem by encouraging them to regard 
themselves as ‘worthy’ human beings. REBT 
therapist takes a radically different approach – 
encouraging the client to throw out the idea of 
self-esteem entirely! This involves giving up the 
practice of trying to judge human beings as ‘wor-
thy’ (a notion, incidentally, that implies it is pos-
sible for them to be ‘unworthy’!); and getting rid 
of the idea that people somehow need ‘value’ or 
‘esteem’. 
The client is, instead, urged to (1) aim for un-
conditional self-acceptance – irrespective of their 
traits and behaviours or how other people see 
them; (2) acknowledge that they simply exist – 
and choose to stay alive, seek joy, and avoid pain; 
and (3) instead of rating their self, to concentrate 
on rating their actions or traits (and the effects of 
these) in terms of how they help achieve the cli-
ent’s goals. 
Secondary disturbances 
As mentioned earlier, REBT points out that hu-
man beings frequently develop problems about 
their problems. By creating these ‘secondary’ 
problems, they complicate their emotional and 
behavioural difficulties. 
Guilt is a common secondary disturbance: for 
instance, people with anger problems may down 
themselves because they have trouble controlling 
their rage. Sufferers of chronic anxiety frequently 
get anxious about getting anxious (the ‘fear of 
fear’). Clients in therapy may become despondent 
because they are not overcoming their problems 
as quickly as they think they ‘should’ be able to. 
Sometimes, for therapy to be effective, the 
secondary disturbance needs to be addressed be-
fore the primary problem becomes accessible to 
change. 
Discomfort Disturbance v. Ego Disturbance 
As noted above, REBT suggests that global 
evaluation of the ‘self’ will often lead to emo-
tional disturbance. This is referred to as ‘ego 
disturbance’ – a concept that exists (in various 
forms) in probably most other therapeutic orienta-
tions, under such terms as ‘low self-esteem’, 
‘poor self-image’ and the like. 
REBT, however, uniquely argues that there is 
another type of disturbance of equal or even 
greater significance: ‘discomfort disturbance’, 
usually referred to as ‘low discomfort-tolerance’ 
(LDT), or ‘low frustration-tolerance’ (LFT). This 
concept explains why people may overreact to 
unpleasant life experiences, to frustration, and to 
their own bad feelings (thus developing ‘secon-
dary’ problems); or will sabotage their therapy

Microsoft Word - Brief Intro to REBT .doc part 1