Elizabeth mam

[Audio] Elizabeth mam BIOCONTROL OF pests – detailed NotES 1. Definition Biocontrol (Biological control): The use of living organisms (natural enemies) to control pest populations. These organisms suppress pests by predation, parasitism, herbivory, or competition. It is an eco friendly alternative to chemical pesticides. ⸻ 2. Historical Background Introduced in 1888: Use of Vedalia beetle to control cottony cushion scale in California citrus. India: 1956, introduction of Australian ladybird beetle Cryptolaemus montrouzieri for mealy bug control. ⸻ 3. Types of Biocontrol Agents A Parasitoids Insects that lay eggs on/in a host; the larvae consume the host. Example: Trichogramma spp. (Egg parasitoids of moths). B Predators Free living organisms that consume pests. Examples: Chrysoperla carnea (lacewing) – aphid predator. Coccinellids (ladybird beetles) – mealybugs and aphids. C Pathogens Microbes that cause disease in pests. Include: Bacteria – Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Fungi – Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae. Viruses – N-P-V (Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus), C-P-V (Cytoplasmic Polyhedrosis Virus). ⸻ 4. Advantages of Biocontrol Eco friendly and biodegradable. Specific to target pests, minimal effect on non target species. No harmful residues in food or soil. Reduces resistance development (unlike chemicals). Safe for pollinators and natural enemies. ⸻ 5. Disadvantages Slow action compared to chemicals. Effectiveness depends on climate and pest population..

[Audio] May require frequent application or monitoring. Initial setup cost can be high. ⸻ 6. Application Methods Inoculative release: Small population released early in the season. Inundative release: Large population released to quickly reduce pest numbers. Conservation: Protecting and enhancing natural enemy populations already present. ⸻ 7. Examples of Biocontrol Agents Biocontrol Agent Target Pest Trichogramma spp. Lepidopteran eggs Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mealybugs Chrysoperla carnea Aphids, whiteflies, thrips Bacillus thuringiensis Caterpillars (Lepidoptera larvae) Beauveria bassiana Whiteflies, beetles, aphids N-P-V (for example, Helicoverpa N-P-V-) Helicoverpa armigera 8. Commercial Formulations Bt formulations: Biobit, Delfin, Biotrol. Fungal formulations: Biorin (Beauveria), Myco Jaal (Metarhizium). Viral formulations: Helicide (NPV for Helicoverpa), Spodocide. ⸻ 9. Role in Integrated Pest Management (I-P-M--) Biocontrol is a core component of I-P-M-. Reduces reliance on chemicals. Encourages sustainable and long term pest suppression. ⸻ 10. Challenges in Biocontrol Adoption Lack of farmer awareness. Limited availability of quality biopesticides. Regulatory approvals and quality standards. Need for trained personnel for mass production and application. Chapter: Biofertilizers and Their Role in India 1. Introduction Biofertilizers are substances containing living microorganisms that promote plant growth by increasing the availability of nutrients. They are environment friendly alternatives to chemical fertilizers and play a crucial role in sustainable agriculture. ⸻ 2. Importance of Biofertilizers in India.

[Audio] Essential for maintaining soil fertility and structure. Help reduce dependency on chemical fertilizers. Cost effective and eco friendly. Important in the context of organic farming, green revolution fatigue, and soil degradation. ⸻ 3. Common Types of Biofertilizers A Nitrogen Fixing Biofertilizers Rhizobium: Symbiotic bacteria living in legume root nodules. Fix atmospheric nitrogen. Azospirillum: Associative symbiotic bacteria, useful for cereals and grasses. Azotobacter: Free living nitrogen-fixing bacteria, suitable for nonleguminous crops. Blue Green Algae (B-G-A--): Cyanobacteria, effective in paddy fields. Anabaena Azolla: Water fern used in rice fields with symbiotic nitrogenfixing Anabaena. B Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms (PSMs) Solubilize insoluble phosphates into forms accessible to plants. Examples: Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Aspergillus. C Potash Mobilizing Bacteria Mobilize potash in soil and make it available to plants. Example: Frateuria aurantia. D Mycorrhizal Fungi Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (V-A-M--) forms a symbiotic relationship with plant roots and helps in the uptake of phosphorus and micronutrients. ⸻ 4. Mechanism of Action Nitrogen Fixation: Conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia. Phosphate Solubilization: Conversion of insoluble phosphate into soluble forms via organic acid production. Growth Promotion: Through the production of growth hormones like auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins. Biocontrol: Suppression of pathogens by competing for nutrients and space or producing antibiotics. ⸻ 5. Application Methods Seed Treatment: Coating seeds with biofertilizers before sowing. Soil Application: Mixing biofertilizers with compost or carrier materials and applying to the field. Seedling Root Dip: Dipping roots of seedlings in a biofertilizer slurry before transplanting. ⸻ 6. Benefits of Using Biofertilizers Improves soil health and structure. Enhances nutrient uptake by plants..

[Audio] Increases crop yield and quality. Reduces environmental pollution. Promotes sustainable and organic agriculture. ⸻ 7. Constraints in Adoption Lack of awareness among farmers. Limited availability of quality biofertilizers. Short shelf life and storage challenges. Inconsistent performance due to environmental factors. ⸻ 8. Government Initiatives & Policies Promotion through schemes like: National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (N-M-S-A-) Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (P-K-V-Y-) National Project on Organic Farming (N-P-O-F-) Subsidies and training programs for farmers. ⸻ 9. Future Prospects Integration with organic and natural farming. Use in precision agriculture and climate resilient farming. Development of multi strain and consortia based biofertilizers. Increaseds(R&D) and commercialization. ⸻ 10. Conclusion Biofertilizers are vital for India’s move toward sustainable agriculture. Need for widespread awareness, better formulations, and supportive government policies. BIOFERTILIZERS Definition & Importance Biofertilizers are preparations containing live or latent cells of efficient strains of microorganisms that help in enhancing the nutrient availability to plants. They are low cost, renewable, and eco friendly alternatives to chemical fertilizers. They improve soil fertility, crop productivity, and are ideal for organic farming. ⸻ Historical Background First biofertilizer ‘Nitragin’ introduced in 1895 (a rhizobium culture). In India, first studied and produced in 1956 by 5 N Joshi. National Biofertilizer Development Centre (N-B-D-C-) established at Ghaziabad. N-P-D-B (National Project on Development and Use of Biofertilizers) launched by the government. ⸻.

[Audio] Types of Biofertilizers & Their Role Type Microorganism Contribution Target Crops Pulses, legumes Nitrogen Fixers Rhizobium (Symbiotic) Fixes 30–50 kilograms N/ha; leaves residual N; 10– 30% yield increase Mustard, sugarcane, fruits, flowers Azotobacter Produces vitamins (B group), IAA, GA; biocontrol Rice, millets Azospirillum Fixes 20–40 kilograms N/ha; improves root growth Rice B-G-A (Blue Green Algae) Fixes 20–30 kilograms N/ha; produces auxins Rice Azolla Fixes 40–80 kilograms N/ha; used as green manure Phosphorus Solubilizers Microbes like Pseudomonas and Bacillus convert insoluble phosphorus into plant usable forms. ⸻ Benefits of Biofertilizers Enhance nutrient availability & root zone activity. Stimulate growth promoting substances like IAA, GA, vitamins. Improve soil structure, fertilizer use efficiency, and sustainability. Provide biotic and abiotic stress resistance. Have residual effects improving yield in subsequent crops. ⸻ Production & Formulation Mass Production Cultures grown in lab: for example, Rhizobium, Azotobacter, et cetera Media used: Rhizobium: yema Azospirillum: Dobereiner’s malic acid broth Azotobacter: Waksman No.77 Optimum conditions: 30 ± 2°C; population density: 10¹⁰ to 10¹¹ cells/ml. Carrier Material Must be: Low cost, non toxic, and available locally High organic content & ≥50% water holding capacity Examples: Press mud, lignite, charcoal, rice husk, peat Inoculant Packaging Use low density polythene bags (50–75 micron). Label must include product info, expiry, usage method, storage. Stored at ambient temperature; biodegradable. ⸻.

[Audio] Application Methods Method Description Seed Treatment Seeds mixed with biofertilizer; air dried for 30 min before sowing Root Dipping Roots dipped in culture suspension (1:10 ratio) for 20 mins before transplanting Set Treatment For sugarcane, banana, et cetera, cut pieces are soaked in culture suspension Soil Application Mixed with compost/cattle manure and applied before sowing or during irrigation Biofertigation Liquid formulations applied through irrigation Injection into Soil Liquid biofertilizers injected near root zone for colonization Disadvantages of Biofertilizers Sensitive to temperature and storage; must be used before expiry. Contamination or wrong strain usage can reduce efficiency. Reduced effectiveness in extreme soil conditions (dry/hot). Require quality control at production and application stages. Biopesticides / Biocontrol Agents Definition Biological agents used to control pests, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, insects, protozoa, and nematodes. Eco friendly alternatives to chemical pesticides. ⸻ Types of Biocontrol Agents Agent Type Examples Target Pests Caterpillars, root pathogens Bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), Bacillus subtilis Whiteflies, root rot fungi Fungi Trichoderma spp., Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria bassiana Helicoverpa, Spodoptera Viruses Nuclear polyhedrosis virus (N-P-V--), Granulosis virus Protozoa Mattesia, Nosema Moth larvae Nematodes Heterorhabditis, Steinernema Soil insects Predators Ladybird beetles, lacewings Aphids, whiteflies Parasitoids Trichogramma spp. Lepidopteran eggs Advantages of Biopesticides Target specific, no harm to beneficial organisms. Biodegradable, eco safe. No chemical residue on produce. Low resistance development in pests. ⸻.

[Audio] Limitations Slower action compared to chemicals. Require specific environmental conditions (moisture, temperature). Shorter shelf life. Sensitive to UV and sunlight. Mass production and field application may be difficult. ⸻ Methods of Application Spray (foliar or soil) Seed coating Soil mixing Trap cropping with infected plants ⸻ Integrated Pest Management (I-P-M--) Biopesticides are an essential part of I-P-M along with: Cultural practices (crop rotation) Mechanical control (traps) Resistant varieties Chemical use (as last resort) 1. Introduction to Biofertilizers Definition: Biofertilizers are substances containing living microorganisms which, when applied to seed, plant surfaces, or soil, promote growth by increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant. Function: Improve soil fertility. Fix atmospheric nitrogen. Mobilize nutrients (like phosphorus and potassium). Promote plant growth through the production of growth promoting substances. ⸻ 2. Importance of Biofertilizers Eco friendly alternative to chemical fertilizers. Help in sustainable agriculture. Maintain soil health and fertility. Reduce dependency on synthetic fertilizers. Enhance crop yield and quality. Cost effective and safe. ⸻ 3. Classification of Biofertilizers 1. Nitrogen Fixing Biofertilizers Symbiotic (for example, Rhizobium) Non symbiotic/free living (for example, Azotobacter, Clostridium) Associative Symbiotic (for example, Azospirillum) 2. Phosphate Solubilizing/Mobilizing Microorganisms Bacteria: Bacillus megaterium, Pseudomonas spp. Fungi: Aspergillus, Penicillium 3. Mycorrhizal Fungi Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (V-A-M--).

[Audio] 4. Sulphur Oxidizing Bacteria Thiobacillus 5. Potassium Solubilizers Bacillus mucilaginosus 6. Zinc Solubilizers Gluconacetobacter spp. 7. Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (P-G-P-R-) ⸻ 4. Nitrogen Fixing Biofertilizers Rhizobium: Symbiotic with legumes. Forms root nodules and fixes atmospheric nitrogen. Azotobacter: Free living, aerobic nitrogen fixer. Produces growth promoting substances (IAA, gibberellins). Azospirillum: Associative symbiosis with grasses. Fixes nitrogen in the rhizosphere. Blue Green Algae (Cyanobacteria): Anabaena, Nostoc – used in paddy fields. Azolla Anabaena Symbiosis: Water fern Azolla harbors Anabaena, fixes nitrogen. ⸻ 5. Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms (P-S-M--) Microorganisms like Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Aspergillus, and Penicillium. Convert insoluble phosphate into soluble forms (H2PO4−, HPO4−). Produce organic acids (citric, lactic, gluconic) to solubilize minerals. ⸻ 6. Potassium Solubilizing Bacteria (K-S-B--) E.g., Bacillus mucilaginosus and Frateuria aurantia. Solubilize potassium from minerals like mica, feldspar. Improve plant resistance to disease, drought. ⸻ 7. Mycorrhizal Fungi Symbiotic association between plant roots and fungi. Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (V-A-M--): Enhance phosphorus, zinc, copper uptake. Improve root growth, plant drought resistance. ⸻ 8. Cyanobacteria and Azolla Cyanobacteria: Photosynthetic, nitrogen-fixing. Common in paddy fields (Nostoc, Anabaena). Azolla: Aquatic fern hosting Anabaena azollae. Biofertilizer in rice cultivation..

[Audio] ⸻ 9. Production Technology Strain selection: Effective, non contaminated, high yielding. Carrier material: Peat, lignite, charcoal – sterile and compatible. Formulation: Mixing culture with carrier in clean conditions. Packaging: Use H-D-P-E or L-D-P-E bags, labeled properly. Storage: Cool (4–25°C), dry place; away from sunlight. ⸻ 10. Application Methods 1. Seed Treatment: Seeds are coated with slurry of biofertilizer using adhesive like jaggery. 2. Seedling Root Dip: Seedlings dipped in slurry before transplantation. 3. Soil Application: Biofertilizer mixed with compost and broadcast in fields. 4. Foliar Spray (less common). ⸻ 11. Quality Control Parameters: Viable cell count (at least 10^7 CFU/g). pH (6.5–7.5). Moisture content (30–40%). Shelf life (generally 6 months). Contamination free: No presence of other microorganisms. ⸻ 12. Advantages of Biofertilizers Cost effective and reduce input cost. Eco friendly and sustainable. Improve soil structure and fertility. Enhance nutrient availability. Promote plant growth and yield. Safe for humans, animals, and environment. ⸻ 13. Limitations of Biofertilizers Require specific storage conditions. Short shelf life. Sensitive to environmental stress. Slower effect than chemical fertilizers. Require skilled handling and awareness among farmers. BIOFERTILIZERS Definition Preparations containing live microorganisms that enhance nutrient availability by: Fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Solubilizing soil nutrients (for example, phosphorus, potassium). Stimulating plant growth..

[Audio] ⸻ Key Roles in Agriculture Improve soil health, crop yield, and nutrient cycling. Essential for sustainable and organic farming. Reduce dependence on chemical fertilizers. ⸻ Types of Biofertilizers 1. Nitrogen Fixers Type Microorganism Target Crops Contribution Symbiotic Rhizobium Legumes Fixes 50–100 kilograms N/ha Associative Symbiotic Azospirillum Rice, maize Fixes 20–40 kilograms N/ha Free living Azotobacter Cotton, wheat Fixes 20–30 kilograms N/ha, secretes vitamins and I-A-A Blue Green Algae Anabaena, Nostoc Rice fields Fixes 20–30 kilograms N/ha Azolla hosts Anabaena Rice Fixes 40–80 kilograms N/ha Azolla Anabaena symbiosis 2. Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms (P-S-M--) Bacteria: Pseudomonas, Bacillus megaterium Fungi: Aspergillus, Penicillium Produce acids that convert insoluble phosphorus to available forms. Improve P uptake, root development, and yield. ⸻ 3. Potassium Solubilizers E.g., Bacillus mucilaginosus Mobilize K from silicate rocks like mica. Enhance disease resistance and yield. ⸻ 4. Sulphur & Zinc Solubilizers Thiobacillus thiooxidans for sulfur. Zinc mobilizing bacteria improve Zn uptake in crops like rice and maize. ⸻ 5. Mycorrhizae Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (V-A-M--): Symbiosis with roots. Improves water absorption and uptake of phosphorus, zinc. Protects against pathogens. ⸻ Production & Formulation.

[Audio] Mass Cultivation Grown in fermenters using specific broth media. for example, Rhizobium in yema, Azospirillum in Dobereiner’s broth. Carrier Based Formulations Carriers: Lignite, peat, press mud, vermiculite. Moisture: 30–40%; Viable count: ≥10⁷ CFU/g. Shelf life: ~6 months. Liquid Formulations High shelf life (1–2 years). Stress resistant microbes with additives (glycerol, PVP). Application Methods Method Description Seed treatment Mixing seeds with biofertilizer slurry before sowing. Seedling dip Dipping roots in slurry during transplantation. Soil application Mixed with compost, applied to soil before sowing. Drip irrigation Liquid biofertilizers applied with irrigation water. Advantages Cost effective. Eco friendly; reduce chemical input. Promote plant health. Increase yield by 10–30%. Improve soil microbial diversity and fertility. ⸻ Limitations Short shelf life (especially carrier based). Storage requires cool, dry conditions. Slow nutrient release compared to chemical fertilizers. Require farmer training for effective use. ⸻ BIOPESTICIDES Definition Natural organisms or their products used to manage pests. Target specific and biodegradable. ⸻ Types of Biopesticides 1. Microbial Biopesticides.

[Audio] Contain bacteria, fungi, viruses, or protozoa. Organism Examples Target Pest Bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Caterpillars, mosquitoes Whiteflies, root rot Fungi Trichoderma, Beauveria bassiana Viruses N-P-V (Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus) Helicoverpa armigera, Spodoptera Protozoa Nosema, Mattesia Moths, leafhoppers 2. Botanical Biopesticides Derived from plants like: Azadirachta indica (Neem) – insect repellent. Pyrethrum – extracted from Chrysanthemum. ⸻ 3. Biochemical Biopesticides Include pheromones (for trapping insects), enzymes, growth regulators. ⸻ Mode of Action Pathogenic: Cause disease in pests (for example, Bt spores rupture insect gut). Antagonistic: Outcompete or inhibit pathogens (for example, Trichoderma). Insecticidal: Paralyze, repel, or interfere with development. Growth inhibition: Prevent molting or egg hatching. ⸻ Formulation Types Wettable powders. Emulsifiable concentrates. Granules. Liquid concentrates. ⸻ Application Methods Spraying on foliage. Soil application (granules). Seed treatment. Traps (pheromone based). Dipping plant material in formulation. ⸻ Advantages Biodegradable. Safe for non target organisms (humans, animals, pollinators). Reduce pest resistance compared to chemicals. Ideal for Integrated Pest Management (I-P-M--). ⸻ Limitations.

[Audio] Specific environmental conditions needed (humidity, temperature). Shorter shelf life. Slower action than synthetic pesticides. Field persistence may be low. Often require repeat applications. ⸻ Examples of Commercial Biopesticides in India Product Microbe/Extract Target Bio Magic Beauveria bassiana Whiteflies, aphids Biotox N-P-V Helicoverpa Neemark Neem extract Sucking pests Pseudomax Pseudomonas fluorescens Soil borne pathogens Regulation in India Controlled under Insecticides Act, 1968. Registration required from Central Insecticide Board (C-I-B--). Stringent quality checks for field effectiveness. ⸻ Integrated Application Biofertilizers plus Biopesticides → Sustainable agriculture. Reduce chemical input and enhance productivity. Recommended under I-P-M and organic farming guidelines. Entomopathogenic Nematodes (EPNs) Highly efficient biocontrol agents that naturally parasitize insect pests. ⸻ 1. Definition and Overview E-P-N's are soil dwelling nematodes that infect and kill insects. Belong to two main genera: Steinernema Heterorhabditis They live in symbiosis with insect pathogenic bacteria: Xenorhabdus (in Steinernema) Photorhabdus (in Heterorhabditis) ⸻ 2. Life Cycle and Mode of Infection Infective Juvenile (I-J---) is the only free living, infective stage. IJs actively seek out insect hosts in soil. Enter host through: Natural openings (mouth, anus, spiracles) In some cases (Heterorhabditis), can directly penetrate the cuticle. Once inside: Release symbiotic bacteria into host’s hemocoel (body cavity). Bacteria multiply, release toxins, kill host within 24–48 hours. Nematodes feed on bacteria and host tissues. Nematodes reproduce inside cadaver, then new IJs emerge to infect others..

[Audio] ⸻ 3. Symbiotic Bacteria Nematode Symbiont Role Steinernema Xenorhabdus Toxin production, insect death Heterorhabditis Photorhabdus Similar role These bacteria: Prevent other microbes from colonizing cadaver. Break down host tissues. Provide food for nematode reproduction. ⸻ 4. Target Insect Pests E-P-N's are effective against many soil dwelling and concealed insect pests: Cutworms (Agrotis) White grubs (Holotrichia, Leucopholis) Armyworms Fungus gnats Root weevils Termites (in some cases) ⸻ 5. Advantages of EPNs Broad host range. Kill insects quickly (within 48 hours). Safe to humans, animals, and non target organisms. Compatible with many agrochemicals and fertilizers. No resistance developed in pests. No environmental pollution. Can be mass produced and applied easily. ⸻ 6. Disadvantages / Limitations Sensitive to UV rays – must be applied in soil or shaded conditions. Require moist environment for movement and survival. Short shelf life unless stored in proper conditions. Cost of production and formulation can be high. ⸻ 7. Mass Production Techniques In vivo method (inside live insect hosts) Wax moth larvae (Galleria mellonella) used as hosts. Simple, low cost method for small scale production. Labour intensive. In vitro method (on artificial media) Solid or liquid culture media. Grown in flasks, bioreactors. Suitable for large scale commercial production..

[Audio] ⸻ 8. Formulations Water dispersible granules Wettable powders Gels or sponges containing IJs Must protect nematodes from heat, drying, and UV. ⸻ 9. Application Methods Soil drench. Seedling dip before transplanting. Through drip irrigation. Spraying on soil (during cool, moist conditions). Note: Avoid exposure to direct sunlight during application. ⸻ 10. Field Examples Used in India and globally for controlling: White grubs in sugarcane, turf grass. Armyworms and borers in maize. Termites and weevils in horticultural crops. ⸻ 11. Conclusion E-P-N's are promising, eco friendly biocontrol tools. Offer sustainable alternatives to chemical insecticides. Ideal component in Integrated Pest Management (I-P-M--) programs. Mass Production of Biopesticides 1. Introduction Biopesticides: Preparations derived from living organisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa) used for pest control. Effective alternative to chemical pesticides in sustainable agriculture. Used in Integrated Pest Management (I-P-M--). ⸻ 2. Importance of Mass Production Demand for eco friendly and safe pest control solutions. Need for large scale, economical production to ensure wide application. Supports organic farming and reduces chemical residues in food. ⸻ 3. Requirements for Mass Production Pure culture of the biocontrol agent. Appropriate growth media (solid/liquid). Sterile environment to avoid contamination. Bioreactors or fermenters for scaling. Trained personnel for handling microbial cultures. Infrastructure like incubation chambers, laminar flow hood, autoclaves..

[Audio] ⸻ 4. General Steps in Mass Production Step 1: Selection of Potent Strain Choose strain with: High virulence against pest. Fast multiplication rate. Stability during storage. Step 2: Maintenance of Stock Culture Regular sub culturing on specific media to retain viability and efficacy. Step 3: Preparation of Starter Culture Inoculate a small amount of stock culture into liquid media to produce bulk starter for further upscaling. Step 4: Large Scale Cultivation Use fermenters or shaking incubators to grow microbes in bulk. Maintain: Temperature: 25–30 degrees celsius (typical) pH: 6.5–7.5 Agitation: For oxygen supply and uniform growth Step 5: Harvesting After sufficient growth (3–5 days): Centrifugation or filtration to separate biomass. Maintain viability of spores or cells. ⸻ 5. Carrier Material for Formulation Mixed with carrier material for ease of application and improved shelf life. Common Carriers: Talc Vermiculite Lignite Peat soil Carrier Requirements: Non toxic, moisture retentive, sterile, pH neutral. ⸻ 6. Formulation Types Wettable powder Dust formulation Granules Liquid suspension Encapsulated beads Each type suited to different modes of application (spray, soil treatment, seed coating). ⸻ 7. Packaging.

[Audio] Polythene bags, sealed properly. Must be moisture proof and protect from UV light. Label must include: Product name Strain details C-F-U count Date of manufacture/expiry Instructions for use ⸻ 8. Quality Control Maintain: Viable count: Minimum 1 × 10⁷ to 10⁸ CFU/g. Purity: Free from contaminants. Shelf life: 6–12 months (depending on formulation). Testing done by QC labs before product approval. ⸻ 9. Examples of Microbial Biopesticides and Their Production Microorganism Target Pest Culture Medium Special Notes Trichoderma viride Soil borne fungi Molasses yeast medium Controls damping off, root rot Pseudomonas fluorescens Soil/root pathogens King’s B broth Promotes plant growth, suppresses pathogens Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Caterpillars Nutrient rich medium with casein, glucose Produces insecticidal crystal proteins Beauveria bassiana Whiteflies, aphids Potato dextrose broth Entomopathogenic fungus N-P-V (Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus) Helicoverpa, Spodoptera Live host insects (in vivo production) Requires rearing insect larvae 10. Storage and Shelf Life Store at cool temperature (10–25°C). Avoid direct sunlight and humidity. Use additives (glycerol, oils) for shelf life enhancement in liquid formulations. ⸻ 11. Application Methods Seed treatment Soil application Foliar spray Drip irrigation systems ⸻ 12. Constraints in Mass Production Contamination risk during culture. High cost of fermenters and media..

[Audio] Temperature sensitivity. Short shelf life of certain strains. Lack of awareness among farmers. ⸻ 13. Conclusion Mass production of biopesticides is vital for sustainable pest control. Requires scientific cultivation, quality control, and formulation. Effective promotion and training will help adoption by farmers. Biological Nitrogen Fixation & The Nitrogen Cycle ⸻ 1. The Nitrogen Cycle Overview Thiobacillus denitrificans: Plays a role in denitrification — the conversion of nitrates (NO₃⁻) to nitrogen gas (N₂), returning nitrogen to the atmosphere. The nitrogen cycle includes processes like: Nitrogen fixation Nitrification Assimilation Ammonification Denitrification ⸻ 2. Biological Nitrogen Fixation Converts atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) to ammonia (NH₃) using enzyme nitrogenase. Reaction: N₂ plus 8H⁺ plus 16ATP → 2NH₃ plus H₂ plus 16ADP plus 16Pi (Catalyzed by nitrogenase) Accounts for most of the natural nitrogen fixation on Earth. ⸻ 3. Types of Nitrogen Fixation A Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation Occurs in association with host plants. Involves mutualistic relationship between specific microbes and plants. Examples: 1. Rhizobia–Legume Symbiosis Rhizobium species (G⁻, unicellular) Forms nodules on legumes like soybean, alfalfa, lentils, peas, beans. Not obligatory; legumes can survive without symbiosis, but nodulation enhances growth. 2. Actinomycetes–Non leguminous Plants Frankia spp. form nodules on plants like Alnus, Myrica, Casuarina. Filamentous, Gram positive bacteria. Called actinorhizal symbiosis. ⸻ B Non symbiotic (Free living) Nitrogen Fixation.

[Audio] 1. Cyanobacteria (Blue green algae): Examples: Nostoc, Anabaena, Calothrix. Photosynthetic and fix N₂ in heterocysts. 2. Aerobic Bacteria: Azotobacter, Beijerinckia, Derxia. 3. Facultative Anaerobes: Bacillus, Klebsiella. 4. Anaerobic Bacteria: Non photosynthetic: Clostridium, Methanococcus. Photosynthetic: Rhodospirillum, Chromatium. ⸻ 4. Rhizobia–Legume Symbiosis in Detail Rhizobia are soil dwelling bacteria that enter into symbiosis under nitrogen limited conditions. Symbiosis begins with chemical signaling between plant roots and bacteria. ⸻ 5. Nodule Formation Process Step 1: Recognition and Colonization Root exudates (flavonoids & betaine) attract Rhizobia (chemotaxis). Flavonoids activate rhizobial nod genes. Rhizobia produce Nod factors (lipo chito oligosaccharides) triggering root response. Lectin Nod factor interaction initiates nodulation. Example: Pea lectin gene inserted in white clover enables nodulation by Rhizobium leguminosarum. Rhicadhesin: Calcium binding protein essential for rhizobial attachment to root hairs. ⸻ Step 2: Root Hair Invasion Root hairs curl and form an infection thread. Rhizobia multiply and travel through this thread. ⸻ Step 3: Cortical Cell Division Cells in pericycle and cortex divide to form a primary nodule meristem. ⸻ Step 4: Nodule Development Infection thread delivers rhizobia to plant cells. Bacteroids (differentiated rhizobia) form inside plant cells. Nodule vascular tissues connect with root stele to transport fixed nitrogen. ⸻.

[Audio] 6. Nod Genes and Their Functions Nod Gene Function nodA N-acyltransferase; adds fatty acyl chain to Nod factor nodB Deacetylates chitin oligosaccharide (terminal sugar) nodC Synthesizes chitin oligosaccharide backbone nodE/F Modify length/saturation of fatty acid chain nodL Adds chemical substitutions to sugar moieties nodP/Q/H Host specific genes determining symbiotic compatibility 7. Root Nodule Formation in Soybean – Stages A Initiation: 1. Root releases attractants. 2. Rhizobia respond and produce Nod factors. 3. Cortex cells divide forming nodule primordium. B Infection: 4. Rhizobia attach to root hairs. 5. Pericycle cells near xylem poles divide. 6. Infection thread forms and grows inward. 7. Merging of primordium and pericycle cells. 8. Differentiated nodule develops with vascular connection and bacteroid containing cells. ⸻ 8. Nitrogenase Enzyme Complex Active inside bacteroids within nodules. Requires: Anaerobic conditions A-T-P and reducing power Highly sensitive to oxygen, protected by leghemoglobin in nodules. Phosphate Solubilization by Microorganisms – Detailed Notes ⸻ 1. Introduction Phosphorus (P) is a vital nutrient for plant growth, similar to nitrogen. Unlike nitrogen, phosphorus lacks a major atmospheric source and is typically abundant in soils in insoluble forms. Essential for: Formation of coenzymes, phosphoproteins, phospholipids, and D-N-A-. Energy transfer and storage (for example, ATP). Root elongation, seed development, and crop maturity. ⸻ 2. Phosphorus Cycle (P Cycle) Weathering of rocks releases phosphate..

[Audio] Absorption by plants and incorporation into animals. Decomposition returns phosphate to soil. Phosphate runoff from fertilizers contributes to the cycle. Sediment formation, geological uplift, and leaching recycle phosphate over long timescales. ⸻ 3. Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms (PSMs) Include: Bacteria: Pseudomonas, Agrobacterium, Bacillus circulans Fungi: Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium Actinomycetes, Algae Fungi are especially efficient due to: Greater mobility in soil Higher organic acid production (for example, gluconic, citric, oxalic acids) ⸻ 4. Diversity of PSM Common genera: Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Micrococcus, Flavobacterium, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Sclerotium Example: Micrococcus luteus ⸻ 5. Mechanism of Action of P-S-B (Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria) Plants absorb P in monobasic (HPO4ˉ) and dibasic (H2PO4ˉ) forms. P-S-B's convert insoluble P to soluble forms via: Organic acids (for example, gluconic, oxalic) Phosphatase and phytase enzymes During conversion: Microbes use some P, but excess P is released into soil for plants. Nitric and sulphuric acids also aid in solubilization. ⸻ 6. Mechanisms of Phosphate Solubilization A General Mechanisms: 1. Lowering soil pH 2. Chelation of metal ions 3. Mineralization of organic P B Inorganic Phosphate Solubilization: By release of: Organic acids Siderophores Protons (H plus ) Hydroxyl ions (OH-) C-O-2 Organic acids acidify soil and release phosphate by: Chelating cations Replacing Ca2 plus with H plus ⸻.

[Audio] 7. Importance of Phosphorus in Plants Component of: Nucleic acids (RNA, D-N-A-) Energy molecules (A-T-P--) Vital for: Protein synthesis Cell division and tissue development Energy transfer Deficiency symptoms: Stunted growth Dark green or reddish purple foliage (due to anthocyanin accumulation) ⸻ 8. Factors Affecting Microbial Phosphate Solubilization Soil nutrient status Microbial physiological state Soil type and pH Temperature (optimum 20–25°C) Interaction with other soil microbes Environmental conditions: salinity, alkalinity, vegetation, land use ⸻ 9. Benefits of PSM Transform insoluble P to bioavailable forms. Act as biofertilizers, enhancing: Soil fertility Crop yield Sustainable agriculture Environmentally friendly alternative to chemical fertilizers ⸻ 10. Conclusion P-S-M's improve nutrient availability and promote plant growth. They produce auxins, H-C-N--, and solubilize P, showing multiple plantbeneficial effects. Need for: Further research to improve P-S-M strains Commercialization and integration into agriculture as biofertilizers Potassium Solubilizing Microorganisms (KSMs) – Detailed Notes ⸻ 1. Introduction Potassium (K) is the most abundant macronutrient in soils. It is the 7th most common element in the Earth’s lithosphere, averaging 2.6% in abundance. Indian soils contain 0.5% to 3.0% total potassium. Potassium is vital for: Photosynthesis Protein synthesis Enzyme activation.

[Audio] Cell elongation Water regulation Phloem transport of photosynthates Stress alleviation in crops ⸻ 2. Forms of Potassium in Soil There are four major forms of potassium in the soil: Form Availability to Plants Description 1. Solution K Immediately available Dissolved in soil water 2. Exchangeable K Readily available Held on soil particles (CEC sites) 3. Fixed / Non exchangeable K Slowly available Entrapped in clay mineral layers 4. Structural / Mineral K Unavailable Part of rock forming minerals like feldspar, mica 3. Potassium Fixation Refers to the conversion of solution or exchangeable K into nonexchangeable forms. Was once considered a negative soil property as it reduces available K for plant uptake. ⸻ 4. Why K-S-M's Are Important? Most soil potassium is in unavailable mineral forms. K-S-M's (Potassium Solubilizing Microorganisms) help convert insoluble potassium to soluble and plant available forms. This promotes plant growth and reduces the need for chemical potassium fertilizers. ⸻ 5. Examples of K-S-M's Bacteria: Bacillus mucilaginosus Bacillus edaphicus Bacillus circulans Paenibacillus spp. Acidothiobacillus ferrooxidans Fungi: Aspergillus spp. Aspergillus terreus ⸻ 6. Mechanisms of Potassium Solubilization by K-S-M's K-S-M's use various biochemical pathways to release K from insoluble minerals:.

[Audio] 1. Acidolysis – Production of organic acids to dissolve minerals 2. Chelation – Organic acids bind metal ions (Fe²⁺, Al³⁺, Ca²⁺) releasing K⁺ 3. Exchange reactions – Ion exchange processes 4. Complexolysis – Formation of soluble complexes 5. Production of Organic Acids – Acids such as: Citric acid Formic acid Malic acid Oxalic acid These acids: Lower the pH Supply protons (H⁺) Dissolve potassium compounds Enhance release of K⁺ ions from silicate minerals ⸻ 7. Isolation and Screening of KSMs Isolated using the serial dilution technique. Cultured on Aleksandrov Medium, which contains: 1% Glucose 0.05% Mgso₄·7h₂o 0.0005% FeCl₃ 0.01% CaCO₃ 0.2% CaPO₄ 0.5% Potassium Aluminum Silicate pH: 6.5 ⸻ 8. Frateuria aurantia (Commercial K-S-M Product K Sol B®) Scientific Classification: Domain: Bacteria Phylum: Proteobacteria Class: Gammaproteobacteria Order: Xanthomonadales Family: Xanthomonadaceae Genus: Frateuria Species: aurantia Historical Background: Isolated from Lilium auratum (flower) and Rubus parvifolius (raspberry fruit). Named after Joseph Frateur. ⸻ 9. K Sol B® Product Details A biofertilizer formulated with Frateuria aurantia. Contains 5 × 10⁷ CFU/g as wettable powder. Other Formulations Available: CFU/ml: 1 × 10⁸ (Liquid) CFU/g or ml: 1 × 10⁹ (Powder/Liquid) CFU/g: 1 × 10¹⁰ (Powder).

[Audio] ⸻ 10. Mode of Action Carbon Utilization: Uses soil/root exudate carbon to grow. Secretes Organic Acids & Enzymes: Solubilize fixed K into exchangeable forms absorbable by plants. Promotes sustainable and organic farming. ⸻ 11. Application Methods Method Instructions Seed Treatment Mix 10 grams K Sol B® plus 10 grams sugar in water to coat 1 kilograms seeds. Shade dry and sow. Seedling Treatment Mix 100 grams K Sol B® with water and organic manure. Dip roots for 30 mins before transplanting. Soil Application Mix 3–5 kilograms/acre with compost and apply. Drip Irrigation Mix 3 kilograms/acre in drip system. 12. Compatibility and Shelf Life Compatible with: Biofertilizers and biopesticides. Shelf life: 1 year from manufacturing. Earthworm and eco friendly. ⸻ 13. Crops Benefiting from K Sol B® Cereals Millets Pulses Oilseeds Sugar crops Fibre crops Vegetables, Fruits Spices, Flowers, Medicinal, Aromatic crops Plantation crops and Orchards ⸻ 14. Cautions for Use Clean mixing equipment before use. Avoid eating/drinking/smoking during application. Use personal protective gear (gloves, apron, mask, et cetera). Dispose surplus in crop land, not open areas. ⸻ 15. Environmental Commitment Safe for organic agriculture. Compatible with IPM/INM (Integrated Nutrient Management) practices. Promotes soil health, microbial population, and sustainability..

[Audio] ⸻ 16. Advantages of K-S-M's and K Sol B® Mobilize unavailable potassium into plant usable forms. Improve: Plant health Soil fertility Soil microbial diversity Help in soil remediation. Non toxic, eco friendly, and earthworm friendly. Quality Control And Fco Specifications In Agriculture ⸻ 1. Introduction to Agricultural Inputs Agriculture productivity is significantly influenced by two key inputs: Fertilizers (Chemical & Bio based) Pesticides (Chemical & Microbial) The role of fertilizers, especially N-P-K (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium), is critical in crop growth. However, over reliance on chemical fertilizers has prompted a shift toward sustainable options like biofertilizers and microbial pesticides. ⸻ 2. Relationship Between Fertilizer Consumption and Food Grain Production A direct correlation has been observed between fertilizer use and foodgrain production. The graph illustrates a rising trend from 1993–94 to 2002–03: Fertilizer consumption (N-P-K--) rose from approx. 90 lakh MT to 210 lakh MT Foodgrain production increased from approx. 150 million MT to 210 million MT This shows the pivotal role of fertilizers in food security, but the trend also highlights the need for balance with sustainable practices. ⸻ 3. Types of Agriculturally Beneficial Microorganisms A Biofertilizers Microorganisms that enhance nutrient availability to plants. Examples: Rhizobium, Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Frateuria aurantia, Bacillus spp. B Biorremediators Microbes that degrade or neutralize toxic substances in soil. Help in soil detoxification and rehabilitation. C Microbial Pesticides Microorganisms that control pests and diseases. Examples: Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), Beauveria bassiana ⸻.

[Audio] 4. Bureau of Indian Standards (B-I-S--) and Biofertilizers The B-I-S plays a crucial role in: Setting quality standards Providing certifications Promoting safe and efficient use of biofertilizers B-I-S Guidelines Include: Minimum viable count (CFU Colony Forming Units) pH, moisture content, and carrier quality Shelf life and storage conditions Packaging standards ⸻ 5. F-C-O Specifications (Fertilizer Control Order) F-C-O--: Overview The FCO 1985, under the Essential Commodities Act, regulates the manufacture, distribution, and quality of fertilizers in India. F-C-O and Biofertilizers In 2006, biofertilizers were included in the F-C-O under the “fertilizer category”. Purpose: Ensure quality standards and avoid spurious/misbranded products. F-C-O Quality Parameters for Biofertilizers: Parameter Specification CFU/g or CFU/ml ≥ 10⁷ to 10⁹ (varies per organism) pH 6.5–7.5 (liquid), 6.0–7.5 (carrier based) Moisture Content 30–40% (for carrier based) Contamination Level No contamination under microscope Shelf Life 6 months (carrier based), 1 year (liquid based) 6. Quality Control Infrastructure Testing Laboratories State run Biofertilizer Testing Laboratories ensure: Random sampling Quality assurance Legal action on substandard products Accreditation Bodies nabl (National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories) BIS-accredited labs monitor C-F-U--, contamination, pH, et cetera ⸻ 7. Importance of Quality Control in Biofertilizers Ensures efficacy and reliability Protects farmer investment Maintains soil microbial health Prevents market flooding with fake or underperforming products.

[Audio] ⸻ 8. Safety & Regulatory Guidelines Labeling Requirements: Name of strain, C-F-U count, expiry date, application method User Safety: Protective gear advised Avoid direct inhalation/contact Environmental Guidelines: Must be eco friendly Should not contaminate water/food chain ⸻ 9. Summary: Advantages of Quality Controlled Biofertilizers Increase in plant nutrient availability Sustainable substitute for chemical fertilizers Improves soil fertility and structure Non toxic and biodegradable Integrated use with I-P-M (Integrated Pest Management) and I-N-M (Integrated Nutrient Management) systems recent ADVANCES IN BIOPESTICIDES ⸻ 1. Introduction to Pesticides A pesticide is any substance or mixture used to prevent, destroy, repel, or mitigate pests. Pests include insects, fungi, bacteria, viruses, weeds, rodents, birds, nematodes, et cetera ⸻ 2. Classification of Pesticides by Target Organism Target Organism Pesticide Type Algae Algicide Birds Avicide Bacteria Bactericide Fungi Fungicide Viruses Virucide Weeds Herbicide Rodents Rodenticide Insects Insecticide Nematodes Nematicide Mites Miticide 3. Types of Pesticides A Chemical Pesticides.

[Audio] Type Persistence Examples Organochlorides High (up to 15 years) D-D-T-, Dieldrin, Aldrin Organophosphates Medium (months) Parathion, Carbaryl, Malathion Carbamates Low (2 weeks) Tenik, Zectran, Zineb Synthetic Pyrethroids Nonpersistent Cypermethrin, Permethrin Prominent Herbicide Families: Phenoxy & Benzoic Acid – for example, 2,4-D Triazines – for example, Atrazine (interferes with photosynthesis) Ureas – for example, Diuron Chloroacetanilides – for example, Alachlor ⸻ 4. Biopesticides Definition: Pesticides derived from natural sources like plants, animals, and microorganisms. Includes microbial pesticides, botanical pesticides, plant incorporated protectants, and biochemical pesticides. ⸻ 5. Microbial Pesticides Made from bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, or nematodes. Often applied like conventional sprays or dusts. Highly specific, non toxic to humans and animals. Important Microbial Biopesticides: Microorganism Targets/Pests Controlled Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Lepidopterous pests (for example, bollworms, stem borers) Metarhizium anisopliae Spittlebugs, rhinoceros beetles Beauveria bassiana Colorado potato beetle Verticillium lecanii Aphids, whiteflies Nomuraea rileyi Soybean caterpillars Baculoviruses (BVs) Lepidopterous and hymenopterous pests; dsDNA viruses 6. Botanical Pesticides Derived from plants; can be contact or stomach poisons. Used in powder, dust, or diluted forms. Key Botanical Compounds and Properties: Azadirachtin (from neem): Affects reproduction & digestion of pests. Nicotinoids, Pyrethroids, Rotenoids: Derived from tobacco, chrysanthemum, et cetera Plant Screening Stats: 2121 plant species useful in pest management: 1005 – Insecticidal 384 – Antifeedant.

[Audio] 297 – Repellent 27 – Attractant 31 – Growth inhibitors ⸻ 7. Plant Incorporated Protectants (PIPs) Pesticidal substances genetically introduced into plants. Pests die upon feeding on such plants. Example: Bt cotton. ⸻ 8. Biochemical Pesticides Natural substances that control pests by non toxic mechanisms. Example: Insect pheromones used to: Monitor populations “Trap out” pests Disrupt mating Attract to baited insecticides ⸻ 9. Advantages of Biopesticides Environment friendly and biodegradable Highly specific to target pests Minimal or no toxicity to humans and animals Reduced chemical residues in food Resistance development in pests is rare Renewable and cost effective in the long term ⸻ 10. Limitations of Biopesticides Slow mode of action Short residual effect (easily degraded by sunlight/UV) Seasonal availability of raw plant materials Difficult to store and transport Poor water solubility, mostly non systemic Limited commercial availability Many products lack scientific validation ⸻ 11. Fate of Pesticides in the Environment Once applied, a pesticide may: Be absorbed by plants/animals/insects/soil organisms Bind to soil particles Dissolve or leach into deeper soil layers Volatilize into air Break down into less toxic compounds Run off during rain/irrigation Factors Affecting Fate: 1. Chemical properties of the pesticide 2. Soil properties (texture, organic content).

[Audio] 3. Environmental conditions (temperature, rainfall) 4. Application and management practices ⸻ 12. Conclusion Biopesticides are a promising eco safe alternative to chemical pesticides. They are effective in controlling soil borne, seed borne, and foliar pests. Challenges like low shelf life, specificity, and climatic dependency must be addressed. Research, awareness, and government support are vital for wider adoption. Promoting biopesticides contributes to sustainable and organic agriculture. 1. Introduction Entomopathogenic fungi are parasitic fungi that infect and kill insects. They are microbial control agents, acting through direct contact and cuticular penetration (Nadeau and others, 1996). Aim: Keep insect population below Economic Threshold Level (E-T-L--). Effective against all life stages: eggs, larvae, pupae, adults. Insects controlled: Locusts, Grasshoppers, Mosquitoes, et cetera ⸻ 2. Insect Orders Affected Hymenoptera Orthoptera Homoptera Coleoptera Diptera Hemiptera Dermaptera Lepidoptera ⸻ 3. Major Groups of Entomopathogenic Fungi Group Examples Deuteromycetes Beauveria, Metarhizium, Lecanicillium, Paecilomyces, Hirsutella, Nomuraea Zygomycetes Entomophthora, Massospora Ascomycetes Cordyceps, Coelomomyces Basidiomycetes Septobasidium 4. Mode of Action 1. Spore (conidium) lands on host cuticle. 2. Germination and formation of appressorium. 3. Penetration via enzymes (chitinases, proteases, lipases). 4. Fungal hyphae invade hemocoel → produce toxins. 5. Fungi emerge from the host → conidiophore formation. 6. Death due to tissue obliteration and toxins..

[Audio] ⸻ 5. Symptoms in Infected Insects (Mycosis) Loss of appetite Climbing behaviour Paralysis Hardening of body Discoloration Insects die in upright position ⸻ 6. Enzymes Involved Chitinase, Chitosanase, Chitobiase Lipase, Phospholipase Protease, Peptidase ⸻ 7. Pathogenicity Genes Chitinases, Adhesins G-proteins and Regulators Subtilisin proteases Perilipin like proteins ⸻ 8. Toxins Destruxins Aflatoxins – Only fungal mycotoxins found in infected insects at lethal levels. ⸻ 9. Tritrophic Interaction Direct effects: Plant chemicals influence fungal germination. Indirect effects: Alter insect immunity, behavior, or surface traits. E.g. Leaf wax removal in crucifers increases Metarhizium anisopliae virulence. ⸻ 10. Important Entomopathogenic Fungi and Targets 1. Beauveria bassiana Causes White Muscardine Disease. Effective against: Whiteflies, Thrips, Aphids, Beetles, Silkworms. Targets: Spodoptera litura, Termites, Grasshoppers. 2. Metarhizium anisopliae Causes Green Muscardine Disease. Effective against: Rhinoceros beetle, Rice B-P-H--, Sugarcane Pyrilla, Grasshoppers. 3. Lecanicillium lecanii (muscarium) Attacks Aphids, Whiteflies, Green peach aphid. Controls Coffee green scale..

[Audio] 4. Nomuraea rileyi Specific to Lepidoptera. Affects: Spodoptera litura, Heliothis zea, Bombyx mori. 5. Paecilomyces fumosoroseus Yellow Muscardine. Controls: Whiteflies, Bagrada cruciferarum. Creates feathery appearance on whitefly nymphs. 6. Hirsutella thompsonii Controls Eriophyid mites (for example Coconut and Citrus rust mite). Non toxic to non target organisms. ⸻ 11. Formulation and Application Aim: Improve shelf life, efficacy, and application ease. Forms: Dust, Water based, Oil based suspensions Best: Oil formulations for spraying ⸻ 12. Marketed Products in India Beauveria bassiana Bio guard rich (Plantrich) Bio power (T.Stanes) Racer, Beavera, Brigade, et cetera Metarhizium anisopliae Bio magic (T.Stanes) Biomet rich, Pacer, Cropmet, Metaz Lecanicillium lecanii Bio catch, Biovert rich, Mealikil, Vertimust Paecilomyces spp. Pacihit rich, Mysis, Nematox ⸻ 13. Importance in Present Scenario 60% pesticides used are chemical based. Chemical issues: Resistance, resurgence, biomagnification, pollution Fungi are: Eco friendly Safe to non target species Support biodiversity Non polluting Induce systemic resistance in crops. 14. Field Studies from India Fungus Crop Pest Application Result B bassiana Coffee Berry borer Spore spray with oil 50–60% reduction.

[Audio] Sunflower H armigera Oil based spray Effective control Green gram White grubs Soil application Effective High reduction M anisopliae Coconut Rhinoceros beetle Compost pit spray 155 q/ha yield Potato White grubs Soil plus Chlorpyrifos Soybean White grubs Soil application 61.5% reduction L lecanii Coffee Green scale Foliar spray 97.6% mortality 1. Azotobacter General Features Discovered by: Beijerinck (1901) Nature: Free living, aerobic, nitrogen-fixing soil bacterium Habitat: Rhizosphere of non leguminous plants Motility: Some species are motile with peritrichous flagella; others are nonmotile. Shape: Oval or spherical Special Structures: Forms thick walled cysts; produces abundant capsular slime Nitrogen Fixation Mechanism: Converts atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) into ammonium ions (NH₄⁺) Oxygen Tolerance: Aerobic nitrogen fixer (uses high respiratory rate to protect nitrogenase from oxygen) Important Species 1. Azotobacter chroococcum 2. Azotobacter beijerinckii Plant Growth Promotion Produces growth promoting substances: Auxins, Gibberellins, Vitamins Stimulates rhizospheric microbial activity Protects plants from phytopathogens Improves nutrient uptake and soil fertility Ecological Significance Population influenced by soil pH, fertility, and organic matter Stimulates biological nitrogen fixation (B-N-F--) Crops Used In Non leguminous crops: Rice, cotton, maize, vegetables, and flowers like marigold, rose, gladiolus, chrysanthemum, dahlia Applications Biofertilizer (seed treatment or soil application) Production of biopolymers and food additives ⸻ 2. Azospirillum Discovery and Taxonomy.

[Audio] Initially Named: Spirillum lipoferum by Dobrienier (1975) Renamed: Azospirillum lipoferum in 1978 by Tarrand, Krieg, and Döbereiner Belongs to: Alpha Proteobacteria class Gram Reaction: Gram negative Shape: Slightly twisted oblong rods (spirillum like) Motility: At least one flagellum, sometimes multiple Oxygen Requirement Mostly aerobic; some are facultative anaerobes (can fix nitrogen under low oxygen – microaerobic diazotrophs) Facultative anaerobes: A melinis, A thiophilum, A humicireducens Growth Conditions Temperature: 5 degrees celsius to 42 degrees celsius (optimum ~30°C) pH Range: 5 to 9 (optimum ~pH 7) Isolated using nitrogen free semi solid media Important Species 1. Azospirillum lipoferum 2. Azospirillum brasilense Ecological and Agricultural Role Found in soil and freshwater; mostly associated with plant roots Beneficial to over 113 plant species across 35 families Increases plant yield, root branching, and fine root hair formation Converts nitrogen and phosphorus into bioavailable forms Protects from drought/flood stress via antioxidant production Competes with pathogens and induces systemic resistance in plants Plant Growth Promotion Secretes phytohormones: GA₃, I-A-A--, I-B-A--, Cytokinins Increases: Vegetative growth Root development Mineral and water uptake Yield (10–20%) Crops Used In Food crops, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits, flowers (for example, marigold, rose, tuberose, gladiolus, chrysanthemum, dahlia) ⸻ 3. Bacillus General Characteristics Genus: Bacillus (from Latin “stick” – refers to rod shape) Gram Reaction: Gram positive (may turn Gram negative in old cultures) Shape: Rod shaped Aerobic/FAC Anaerobe: Obligate aerobes or facultative anaerobes Endospore Formation: Forms resistant oval endospores (heat resistant, can survive 420°C) Species Diversity Over 266 named species Found in all natural environments due to broad physiological adaptability Cell Wall Composition.

[Audio] Contains teichoic and teichuronic acids Maintains rod shape and cell turgor First bacterium (B. subtilis) for which cytoskeletal role in shape and PG synthesis was discovered Endospore Features One spore per cell Highly resistant to: Heat Desiccation UV and radiation Disinfectants Origin and Naming Named by Ehrenberg (1835), expanded by Cohn to include spore forming, aerobic/anaerobic rod shaped bacteria ⸻ 4. PGPR – Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria Definition Group of beneficial soil bacteria that colonize plant roots or rhizosphere and enhance plant growth Functional Categories 1. Biofertilizers: Enhance nutrient uptake (for example, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Bacillus) 2. Bioprotectants: Suppress plant diseases 3. Biostimulants: Stimulate plant hormone production Key Genera Pseudomonas, Bacillus Advances Use of molecular techniques to track P-G-P-R behavior in soil Development of genetically modified P-G-P-R strains with: Antibiotic production Enhanced phytohormone synthesis ⸻ Comparison Table of Bacterial Biofertilizers Feature Azotobacter Azospirillum Bacillus Shape Oval/Spherical Spiral/Oblong Rod Rod Gram Reaction Negative Negative Positive Nitrogen Fixation Aerobic Microaerobic Indirect (P-G-P-R-) Motility Some species motile Motile with flagella Variable Special Structures Cysts, slime Flagella, no spores Endospores Oxygen Requirement Obligate Aerobe Facultative/ Microaerophilic Aerobe/Facultative Anaerobe.

[Audio] Crop Association Non legumes Roots of many plants All crops (soil microflora) Additional Role Produces vitamins, auxins Spore forming bioprotectant Induces systemic resistance, antioxidants BIOPESTICIDES – detailed NotES ⸻ Definition Biopesticides are natural or biologically derived agents used to control pests. They include: Biochemical pesticides – Non toxic substances interfering with pest behavior. Microbial pesticides – Microorganisms that cause disease in or kill pests. Plant Incorporated Protectants (PIPs) – Substances produced by genetically modified plants. ⸻ Need for Biopesticides Chemical pesticides harm soil, water, and biodiversity. Rising pest resistance due to overuse of chemicals. Increasing population needs safe and sustainable crop production. Biopesticides offer eco friendly alternatives. ⸻ CLASSES OF BIOPESTICIDES 1. Biochemical Pesticides Naturally occurring non toxic compounds. Disrupt pest behavior (for example, sex pheromones). Plant based scented extracts attract pests to traps. ⸻ 2. Microbial Pesticides Largest group of biopesticides. Use microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa). Over 100 naturally insecticidal microbes known. A Bacterial Biopesticides 4 categories: 1. Crystalliferous spore formers – Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) 2. Obligate pathogens – Bacillus popilliae 3. Potential pathogens – Serratia marcescens 4. Facultative pathogens – Pseudomonas aeruginosa Most important: Bt and B popilliae Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Gram positive, spore forming bacterium with 100 plus subspecies. Produces insecticidal Cry proteins (crystal toxins). Cry Proteins: Three domain globular structures..

[Audio] Long protoxins with C-terminal extension (aids crystal formation and toxicity). Cause feeding cessation and death in insects. Mechanism: 1. Ingestion of Cry protoxins by insect larvae. 2. Solubilization and activation by gut proteases. 3. Binding to midgut receptors. 4. Insertion into membranes → pore formation. 5. Cell lysis → gut leakage → starvation and septicemia → death. ⸻ B Viral Biopesticides Mainly Baculoviruses (for example, N-P-V Nucleopolyhedrovirus). Narrow host range. Susceptible to UV damage; protected by greenhouse/plastic coverings or optical brighteners. Mechanism: Virus replicates in insect host cells in 3 stages: 1. Early Phase (0–6 hrs) 2. Late Phase (6–24 hrs): occlusion body (O-B---) protein (~29 kDa) synthesis begins. 3. Very Late Phase (up to 72 hrs): virion assembly. Kills host by disrupting internal cellular processes. ⸻ C Fungal Biopesticides (Not elaborated in your notes; examples include Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae) ⸻ D Protozoan Biopesticides Mostly Microsporidia (for example, Nosema, Vairimorpha). Chronic, debilitating infections (esp. Lepidoptera & Orthoptera). Limited commercial use due to complexity. Nosema pyrausta: Transmitted horizontally (larvae consume spores) and vertically (infected ovaries). Suppresses pest population by reducing reproduction and larval survival. ⸻ 3. Plant Incorporated Protectants (PIPs) Transgenic crops expressing microbial insecticidal genes. Example: Bt cotton and Bt maize. GM crops: sugar beet, papaya, sweet pepper, tomato, et cetera ⸻ Microbial Products In Biopesticides Produced by bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi. Examples:.

[Audio] Non-filamentous bacteria: aminolevulinic acid, thiolutin, thuringiensin. Actinomycetes: actinomycin A, avermectins, nikkomycin. Fungi: spinosyns, citromycin. Functions: Act as toxins, growth inhibitors, antifeedants, and disrupt physiological functions. ⸻ Advantages Of Biopesticides Less toxic than conventional pesticides. Target specific: minimal effect on beneficial organisms. Biodegradable; reduce pollution. Compatible with Integrated Pest Management (I-P-M--). Effective at low doses. ⸻ Positive Aspects Of Microbial Pesticides Safe for humans and environment. Specific to pests; minimal impact on pollinators and natural predators. Can be integrated with synthetic chemicals. Allow application near harvest. May establish and persist for seasonal or long term pest control. Encourage beneficial soil microflora; improve plant growth and yield. ⸻ Demerits / Challenges Of Microbial Pesticides Narrow host range: may not control multiple pest species. Sensitive to heat, UV light, and desiccation – need special delivery systems. Short shelf life and complex storage needs. Limited market potential due to specificity. High cost of development, registration, and limited commercial reach. Formulation improvement needed (dry > liquid). May require combination with chemical insecticides, risking incompatibility. Regulatory & Research Challenges: Need ecological studies on pest pathogen interactions. Improved mass production, formulation stability, field persistence. Regulatory concerns regarding resistance, non target effects, registration. ⸻ CONCLUSION Biopesticides, particularly microbial types, offer a safe, eco friendly alternative to conventional pesticides, especially in I-P-M programs. While they come with challenges related to specificity, stability, and market viability, ongoing research and biotechnological advancements hold promise for their enhanced effectiveness and wider application..