General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry

General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry. 6th Edition.

Chemistry in our Lives. Most forensic scientists work in crime laboratories where they analyze bodily fluids and tissue samples collected by crime scene investigators..

1.1 Chemistry and Chemicals. Learning Goal: Define the term chemistry, and identify chemicals. In the blood, hemoglobin transports oxygen to the tissues and carbon dioxide to the lungs..

What Is Chemistry?. Chemistry is the study of the composition, structure, properties, and reactions of matter. happens all around you every day. Antacid tablets undergo a chemical reaction when dropped into water. ..

Chemistry and Matter. Matter is another word for all substances that make up our world. Antacid tablets are matter. Water is matter. Glass is matter. Air is matter..

Chemicals. Chemicals are substances that have the same composition and properties wherever found. often substances made by chemists that you use every day..

Chemicals in Toothpaste. TABLE 1.1 Chemicals Commonly Used in Toothpaste Chemical Calcium carbonate Sorbitol Sodium lauryl sulfate Titanium dioxide Sodium fluorophosphate Methyl salicylate Function Used as an abrasive to remove plaque Prevents loss of water and hardening of toothpaste Used to loosen plaque Makes toothpaste white and opaque Prevents formation of cavities by strengthening tooth enamel Gives toothpaste a pleasant wintergreen flavor.

Learning Check. Which of the following contains chemicals? A. Sunlight B. Fruit C. Milk D. Breakfast cereal.

Which of the following contains chemicals? A. Sunlight is energy; it does not contain chemicals. B. Fruit is a type of matter; it contains chemicals. C. Milk is a type of matter; it contains chemicals. D. Breakfast cereal is a type of matter; it contains chemicals. Only B. fruit, C. milk, and D. breakfast cereal contain chemicals..

1.2 Scientific Method: Thinking Like a Scientist.

The Scientific Method. The scientific method is a set of general principles that helps to describe how a scientist thinks. Make observations about nature and ask questions about what you observe. When an observation always seems to be true, it may be stated as a law that predicts that behavior and is often measurable. Propose a hypothesis, which gives a possible explanation of an observation or a law. Perform experiments to find a relationship between the hypothesis and the observations. Make a conclusion as to whether the hypothesis may be true or false after analysis of the results of the experiments..

Using the Scientific Method. Suppose you visit a friend in her home and soon after you arrive, you begin to sneeze. You observe that your friend has a new cat. You ask yourself why you are sneezing and form a hypothesis that you are allergic to cats. You perform experiments to test your hypothesis by visiting other friends with cats. If you sneeze after leaving the other homes with cats, you come to the conclusion that your hypothesis is correct..

Using the Scientific Method (continued). Through your observations, you may determine that you are allergic to cat hair and dander..

Using the Scientific Method (continued). Scientific Method Observations Hypothesis Experiments Conclusion/ Theory Law The hypothesis is modified if the results of the experiments do not support it..

Learning Check. Identify each of the following as an observation (O), a hypothesis (H), an experiment (E), or a conclusion (C): A. During your visit to the gym, your trainer records that you ran for 25 minutes on the treadmill. B. Scientific studies show that exercising lowers blood pressure. C. Your doctor thinks that your weight loss is due to increased exercise..

Observation (O). Conclusion (C). Hypothesis (H). Solution.

1.3 Studying and Learning Chemistry. Learning Goal: Identify strategies that are effective for learning. Develop a study plan for learning chemistry..

Strategies to Improve Learning and Understanding.

Strategies to Improve Learning and Understanding (continued).

Features in This Text That Help You Study and Learn Chemistry.

Before Reading. Before you begin to read the chapter, obtain an overview of the chapter by reading Looking Ahead. look at the section title and rephrase it as a question. review the Learning Goal that tells you what to expect in that section..

As You Read. As you read the chapter, try to answer the question you made from the section title. pause at the Engage questions and test yourself with a question related to the material. work through the Sample Problems (the Try it First feature reminds you to work the problem before you look at the solution). review the Analyze the Problem feature which shows you how to organize the data in some word problems. try the Practice Problems that allow you to apply problem solving to the new concepts..

Throughout the Chapter. Throughout the chapter, there are tools that help you connect the chemical concepts you are learning to real life. Chemistry Link to Health Chemistry Link to the Environment Clinical Application Problems.

Figures, Diagrams, and Interactive Videos. Many figures and diagrams use micro-to-macro illustrations to depict the atomic level of organization. illustrate the concepts in the text. allow you to see the world in a microscopic way. Interactive videos illustrate content as well as problem solving. (Found on MasteringChemistry.com).

End of Chapter. At the end of the chapter, there are study aids such as: Chapter Reviews, which provide a summary. Concept Maps, which show connections between important concepts. Key Terms, which are listed with their definitions. Key Math Skills and Core Chemistry Skills, which provide summaries of relevant math and chemical principles. Understanding the Concepts, which help you visualize concepts. Additional Practice Problems and Challenge Problems, which provide a means to assess your understanding..

Making a Study Plan. My study plan for learning chemistry will include the following: reading the chapter before class going to class reviewing the Learning Goals keeping a problem notebook reading the text and working practice problems answering the Engage questions working Sample Problems before looking at the solutions working Practice Problems and checking answers studying different topics at the same time.

Making a Study Plan (continued). organizing a study group seeing the professor during office hours reviewing Key Math Skills and Core Chemistry Skills attending review sessions studying often.

1.4 Key Math Skills for Chemistry. Learning Goal: Review math concepts used in chemistry: place values, positive and negative numbers, percentages, solving equations, and interpreting graphs..

Identifying Place Values. For any number, we can identify the place value for each of the digits in that number. The place values for two numbers are listed below:.

Learning Check. What is the place value for the underlined digit in 35.679? A. thousands hundreds tenths hundredths thousandths.

Solution. What is the place value for the underlined digit in 35.679? A. thousands hundreds tenths hundredths thousandths.

Using Positive and Negative Numbers in Calculations.

Multiplication and Division of Positive and Negative Numbers.

Addition of Positive and Negative Numbers. When two positive numbers are added, the sign of the answer is positive. When two negative numbers are added, the sign of the answer is negative. When a positive number and a negative number are added, the smaller number is subtracted from the larger number, and the result has the same sign as the larger number..

Subtraction of Positive and Negative Numbers. When two numbers are subtracted, change the sign of the number to be subtracted and then follow the rules for addition..

Calculator Operations. On your calculator, there are four keys used for basic mathematical operations. The change sign key is used to change the sign of a number..

Calculating Percentages. To determine a percentage, divide the parts by the total (whole) and multiply by 100%..

Solving Equations. Equations can be rearranged to solve for an unknown variable. 2x + 8 = 14.

Learning Check. Solve the following equation for P1..

To solve for P1, divide both sides by V1.. Solution.

Interpreting Graphs. A graph represents the relationship between two variables. contains two perpendicular axes. has a horizontal axis, or x-axis. has a vertical axis, or y-axis..

Interpreting Graphs. In the following graph, the volume of a gas in a balloon is plotted against its temperature. y-axis represents the volume (L) of the gas in the balloon. x-axis represents the temperature (°C) of the gas. the title indicates that the volume of the balloon was measured at different temperatures. the points represent the volume of gas in liters that was measured at a specific temperature..

Interpreting Graphs. The line on the graph indicates a direct relationship: that the volume of a gas in a balloon increases with increasing temperature. can be used to determine the gas volume at various temperatures..

1.5 Writing Numbers in Scientific Notation. Learning Goal: Write a number in scientific notation..

Scientific Notation. Numbers written in scientific notation have two parts: Coefficient and Power of 10 To write 2400 in the correct scientific notation, the coefficient is 2.4. the power of 10 is 3. write the product of the coefficient multiplied by a power of 10. 2.4 × 103.

Scientific Notation (continued). 2 400 = 2.4 × 1 000 = 2.4 × 103  3 places Coefficient × Power of 10 0.00086 = = 8.6 × 10−4 4 places  Coefficient × Power of 10.

Some Positive Powers of 10. TABLE 1.2 Some Powers of 10 Standard Number Multiples of 10 Scientific Notation 10000 1000 IOO 10 1 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 10 x 10 x 10 10 10 o 1 1 I 1 1 x 104 103 X 102 X x 101 x 100 Some positive powers of 10.

Some Negative Powers of 10. 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 TABLE 1.2 Some Powers of 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 1 10 1 1 10 10 1 1 1 I 1 1 Some negative powers of 10 1 100 1 1 10 10 10 1000 1 1 1 1 10 10 10 10 1 10 ooo —2 —3 x 104.

Measurements in Scientific Notation. Diameter of chickenpox virus = 0.000 000 3 m = 3 × 10−7 m.

Some Measurements Written as Standard Numbers and in Scientific Notation.