Name: Start With 1 of These Slides
Uploaded: 2025-01-10
Duration: 23 min 56 s
Description: Blood is one of the most vital fluids in our bodies, responsible for delivering oxygen and nutrients to our cells while removing waste products. The functions of blood include transport of gases, nutrients, and waste products, regulation of pH and osmosis, maintenance of body temperature, protection against foreign substances, and clot formation..

[Audio] Blood is one of the most vital fluids in our bodies, responsible for delivering oxygen and nutrients to our cells while removing waste products. The functions of blood include transport of gases, nutrients, and waste products, regulation of pH and osmosis, maintenance of body temperature, protection against foreign substances, and clot formation.. 

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[Audio] Blood plays a crucial role in transporting essential substances throughout the body. It carries gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, allowing cells to breathe and remove waste products. The blood also transports nutrients like glucose and amino acids, providing energy and building blocks for growth and repair. Furthermore, it removes waste products like urea and creatinine, preventing their accumulation and potential harm. In addition, blood carries processed molecules like hormones and vitamins, regulating various bodily functions. Lastly, it maintains body temperature by transporting heat from the core to the skin, where it can be lost.. 

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Transport of gases, nutrients and waste products
Transport of processed molecules
Transport of regulatory molecules
Regulation of pH and osmosis
Maintenance of body temperature
Protection against foreign substances
Clot formation

[Audio] Blood is composed of two main parts: plasma and formed elements. Plasma makes up approximately 55 percent of our blood, and it is a pale, yellow liquid that surrounds our cells. This liquid is mostly made up of water, with smaller amounts of proteins and other substances. On the other hand, formed elements account for about 45 percent of our blood, and they are made up of cells and cell fragments. These include erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells, leukocytes, and thrombocytes.. 

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Plasma:
55% of total blood
pale, yellow liquid that surrounds cells
91% water, 7% proteins, and 2% other
Formed Elements:
45% of total blood 
cells and cell fragments
erythrocytes, leukocytes, thrombocytes

[Audio] Plasma proteins play a crucial role in maintaining our body's homeostasis. Albumin, making up 58% of these proteins, helps regulate water balance within our bodies, which is essential for proper bodily functions, such as maintaining blood pressure and facilitating waste removal. Globulins, accounting for 38% of plasma proteins, contribute significantly to our immune system, helping to fight off infections and diseases by recognizing and binding to foreign substances, such as bacteria and viruses. Fibrinogen, comprising only 4% of plasma proteins, plays a vital role in clot formation, helping to form clots when we experience injuries or bleeding, which stops the bleeding and promotes healing. These three types of plasma proteins work together to maintain our overall health and well-being, and without them, our bodies would not be able to function properly.. 

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Albumin:
58% of plasma proteins 
helps maintain water balance
Globulins:
38% of plasma proteins
helps immune system 
Fibrinogen:
4% of plasma proteins
aids in clot formation

[Audio] Blood consists of two main components: plasma and formed elements. Plasma makes up about 55 percent of the total blood volume and is a pale, yellow liquid that surrounds the cells. It is mostly composed of water, with smaller amounts of proteins and other substances. In contrast, formed elements account for approximately 45 percent of the total blood volume and comprise red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. These cells and cell fragments play crucial roles in maintaining our overall health.. 

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[image] Shown is the composition of whole blood consisting of plasma and the formed elements which are red blood cells white blood cells and platelets

[Audio] In the early stages of life, hematopoiesis takes place in multiple tissues. The liver, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and red bone marrow all play a role in producing formed elements during fetal development.. 

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Hematopoiesis is the process that produces formed elements. 
In the fetus, hematopoiesis occurs in several tissues, including the liver, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and red bone marrow. 
After birth, hematopoiesis is confined primarily to red bone marrow, but some white blood cells are produced in lymphatic tissues.

[Audio] Blood is produced from a single population of cells called stem cells, or hemocytoblasts. These stem cells have the ability to differentiate into various cell lines, resulting in the formation of distinct types of formed elements. This process is known as hematopoiesis.. 

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All the formed elements of blood are derived from a single population of cells called stem cells, or hemocytoblasts. 
These stem cells differentiate to give rise to different cell lines, each of which ends with the formation of a particular type of formed element.

[Audio] Hematopoiesis begins with the hemocytoblast, a type of stem cell. This cell gives rise to all the different types of blood cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. The process starts with the self-replication of the hemocytoblast, followed by its differentiation into more specialized cells.. 

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[image] Illustrated is hematopoiesis which is the development of the various formed elements starting with the initial stem cell the hemocytoblast

[Audio] Red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, have a unique disk-like shape with thick edges. During their development, they lose their nucleus, which allows them to focus on producing hemoglobin, the protein responsible for carrying oxygen throughout the body. These cells have a remarkable lifespan of 120 days, playing a crucial role in delivering oxygen to our tissues.. 

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This is a scanning electron micrograph of the red blood cells and white blood cells.
This illustration shows the shape and size of the red blood cell from a top view and side view.

Red blood cells (RBC)
Disk-shaped with thick edges 
Nucleus is lost during development
Live for 120 days 
Function:
transport O2  to tissues

(a) ©National Cancer Institute/Science Source

[Audio] Hemoglobin plays a crucial role in the transportation of oxygen throughout our bodies. As the main component of red blood cells, each hemoglobin protein is attached to a heme molecule containing one iron atom. Oxygen binds to this iron atom, resulting in oxyhemoglobin, also known as hemoglobin with an oxygen molecule attached. This process is essential for delivering oxygen to our tissues and organs, making it possible for us to survive.. 

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Main component of erythrocytes
Transports O2
Each globin protein is attached to a heme molecule
Each heme contains one iron atom 
O2 binds to iron 
Oxyhemoglobin:
hemoglobin with an O2 attached

[Audio] Hemoglobin is composed of four subunits, each consisting of a globin and a heme group. Two of these subunits are alpha globins, while the other two are beta globins. Each heme group is associated with a globin and contains one iron atom. This unique structure allows hemoglobin to bind to oxygen and transport it throughout the body.. 

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[image] Illustrated is hemoglobin which consists of four subunits each with a globin and a heme There are two alpha globins and two beta globins A heme is associated with each globin and each heme contains one iron atom

[Audio] When decreased oxygen levels are present in the blood, it triggers a response from the kidneys to increase the production of erythropoietin. This hormone then stimulates the red bone marrow to produce more erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells. As a result, there is an increase in the number of erythrocytes in the blood, which ultimately leads to an increase in blood oxygen levels.. 

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Decreased blood O2 levels cause kidneys to increase production of erythropoietin.
Erythropoietin stimulates red bone marrow to produce more erythrocytes.
Increased erythrocytes cause an increase in blood O2 levels.

[Audio] The body tightly regulates red blood cell production to ensure sufficient oxygen delivery to tissues. The process starts in the bone marrow, where stem cells differentiate into red blood cells under the influence of erythropoietin, a hormone produced by the kidneys in response to low blood oxygen levels. This hormone signals the bone marrow to increase red blood cell production, resulting in an increased number of red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream, which allows for optimal oxygen delivery to tissues.. 

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[image] Red blood cells are produced in the bone marrow at a rate controlled by erythropoietin from the kidneys which are monitoring the blood oxygen level

[Audio] As old red blood cells reach the end of their lifespan, they're removed from the bloodstream by specialized cells called macrophages. These macrophages can be found in the spleen and liver. Once removed, the hemoglobin within these cells begins to break down. The globin portion of hemoglobin is then converted into its constituent amino acids. Meanwhile, the iron from the hemoglobin is recycled back into the body's circulation. The heme molecule, which is a key component of hemoglobin, is converted into bilirubin. This bilirubin is then transported to the liver, where it's incorporated into bile and released into the small intestine.. 

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Old red blood cells are removed from blood by macrophages in spleen and liver
Hemoglobin is broken down
Globin is broken down into amino acids
Hemoglobin’s iron is recycled
Heme is converted to bilirubin 
Bilirubin is taken up by liver and released into small intestine as part of bile

[Audio] Hemoglobin breakdown occurs when it's no longer needed by the body. This process takes place in specialized cells called macrophages. Within these cells, hemoglobin is broken down into two main components: heme and globin. Heme is further divided into bilirubin and iron, while globin is separated into its individual amino acids. This breakdown allows the body to recycle the essential nutrients and eliminate any waste products.. 

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[image] Hemoglobin is broken down in macrophages to heme and globin Globin is broken into its amino acids and heme into bilirubin and iron

[Audio] White blood cells, also known as leukocytes, lack hemoglobin, unlike red blood cells. They are larger than erythrocytes and contain a nucleus. The primary functions of white blood cells include fighting infections and removing dead cells and debris from the body through a process called phagocytosis.. 

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White blood cells (WBC)
Lack hemoglobin
Larger than erythrocytes
Contain a nucleus
Functions:
fight infections
remove dead cells and debris by phagocytosis

[Audio] The granulocytes are a type of white blood cell containing specific granules within their cytoplasm. They play a crucial role in the immune system by engulfing foreign particles and bacteria, thereby protecting against infection. There are three main types of granulocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. Neutrophils are the most abundant type, accounting for approximately 50-70% of all white blood cells. They can stay in the bloodstream for only 10 to 12 hours before migrating to tissues, where they continue to phagocytize foreign substances, helping to eliminate pathogens and prevent infections from spreading.. 

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Granulocytes: contain specific granules and include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils	
Neutrophils:	
most common 
remain in blood for 10 to 12 hours then move to tissues
phagocytes

[Audio] Eosinophils reduce inflammation by releasing enzymes that break down and remove damaged tissue. They also destroy certain parasites, such as worms, by engulfing them with their granules. Basophils, although rare, are primarily involved in allergic reactions. When activated, they release histamine, causing blood vessels to dilate and smooth muscle to contract, resulting in increased permeability and swelling. Furthermore, basophils release heparin, a natural anticoagulant that prevents blood clotting.. 

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Eosinophils:	
reduce inflammation
destroy parasites 
Basophils:	
least common
release histamine and heparin

[Audio] There are three main categories of agranulocytes, also known as non-phagocytic leukocytes. Monocytes are the largest type of white blood cell, and they play a crucial role in the immune system by producing macrophages. Lymphocytes, on the other hand, are responsible for the body's immune response. They come in several different forms, including T cells and B cells, which work together to produce antibodies. These antibodies help to fight off infections and diseases.. 

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Agranulocytes: no specific granules 
Monocytes:
largest sized white blood cells
produce macrophages
Lymphocytes:
immune response
several different types (T cells and B cells)
lead to production of antibodies

[Audio] The different types of white blood cells include neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes. Each type plays a unique role in the immune system. Neutrophils fight bacterial infections, basophils are involved in allergic reactions, eosinophils eliminate parasites, lymphocytes mediate cell-based immunity, and monocytes mature into macrophages that engulf and digest foreign particles and cellular debris.. 

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[image] This is a photomicrograph of a neutrophil This is a photomicrograph of a basophil This is a photomicrograph of an eosinophil This is a photomicrograph of a lymphocyte This is a photomicrograph of a monocyte

[Audio] Platelets are tiny fragments of cells that have a small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by a cell membrane. They're produced in the red bone marrow from larger cells called megakaryocytes. Small fragments break off from these megakaryocytes and enter the bloodstream as platelets. These platelets play a crucial role in preventing excessive bleeding.. 

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Platelets are minute fragments of cells, each consisting of a small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by a cell membrane. 
They are produced in the red bone marrow from large cells called megakaryocytes. 
Small fragments break off from the megakaryocytes and enter the blood as platelets. 
Platelets play an important role in preventing blood loss.

[Audio] When blood vessels are damaged, blood can leak into other tissues and disrupt normal function. This leakage can lead to bleeding, swelling, and even organ failure if left untreated. In such cases, it's crucial to replace the lost blood to restore normal physiological processes. This replacement can occur through the production of new blood cells or by receiving a blood transfusion.. 

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When blood vessels are damaged, blood can leak into other tissues and disrupt normal function. 
Blood that is lost must be replaced by production of new blood or by a transfusion.

[Audio] When blood vessels are injured, vascular spasm occurs, causing the blood vessel to constrict temporarily and reducing blood flow to the affected area, thereby slowing down bleeding. Platelet plugs also form, aggregating at the site of injury to create a temporary seal over small breaks in the blood vessel. Additionally, blood clotting, or coagulation, plays a crucial role in stopping bleeding by forming a stable blood clot that can withstand the pressure of blood flowing through the vessel.. 

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Vascular spasm:
temporary constriction of blood vessel
Platelet plugs:
can seal up small breaks in blood vessels
Blood clotting (coagulation)

[Audio] When smooth muscle within the blood vessel wall contracts, it causes a temporary constriction, known as vascular spasm. This constriction can completely block small blood vessels, stopping the flow of blood through them. The contraction is triggered by chemicals released by damaged blood vessel cells and by platelets.. 

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Vascular spasm is an immediate but temporary constriction of a blood vessel that results when smooth muscle within the wall of the vessel contracts. 
This constriction can close small vessels completely and stop the flow of blood through them. 
Vascular spasm is stimulated by chemicals released by cells of the damaged blood vessel wall and by platelets.

[Audio] Platelet plugs play a crucial role in preserving the integrity of damaged blood vessels. The process of platelet plug formation can be broken down into several stages, although in reality, many of these steps take place simultaneously. Initially, platelets adhere to the exposed collagen within the damaged blood vessel wall. Following this, platelets become activated, alter their shape, and release chemical signals.. 

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A platelet plug is very important in maintaining the integrity of the damaged blood vessels. 
The formation of a platelet plug can be described as a series of steps, but in actuality many of these steps occur at the same time. 
Platelet adhesion occurs first, when platelets stick to the exposed collagen in the damaged blood vessel wall. 
After platelets adhere to collagen, they become activated, change shape, and release chemicals.

[Audio] Fibrinogen forms bridges between the fibrinogen receptors of numerous platelets, resulting in a platelet plug. This process is called platelet aggregation.. 

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In platelet aggregation, fibrinogen forms bridges between the fibrinogen receptors of numerous platelets, resulting in a platelet plug.

[Audio] During platelet plug formation, platelets adhere to the surface of a damaged vessel and to other platelets, thereby reducing blood loss. This process helps to prevent excessive bleeding from injured vessels. As platelets aggregate, they release chemical signals that attract more platelets to the site, forming a platelet plug that can seal off small wounds.. 

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[image] Shown is during platelet plug formation platelets adhere to the surface of a damaged vessel and to other platelets so as to reduce blood loss

[Audio] Blood can be transformed from a liquid to a gel through the process of blood clotting. This transformation occurs when a network of thread-like proteins called fibrin traps blood cells and fluid. The formation of this clot depends on the presence of clotting factors, which are proteins found in plasma. These clotting factors are only activated following an injury, such as a cut or a broken bone. They are produced by the liver and require vitamin K to function properly. Without these clotting factors, the body would not be able to form clots and stop bleeding in response to injury.. 

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Blood can be transformed from a liquid to a gel
Clot:  
network of thread-like proteins called fibrin that trap blood cells and fluid
depends on clotting factors
Clotting factors:
proteins in plasma
only activated following injury
made in liver
require vitamin K

[Audio] The process of clot formation commences when injury occurs to a blood vessel. Exposure of connective tissue or the release of thromboplastin triggers the activation of previously inactive clotting factors. Prothrombinase, a key clotting factor, is then formed and acts on prothrombin, converting it into its active form, thrombin. Thrombin plays a crucial role by activating fibrinogen, transforming it into its active form, fibrin. As fibrin forms a network, it traps blood, resulting in the formation of a clot.. 

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Injury to a blood vessel causes inactive clotting factors to become activated due to exposed conn. tissue or release of thromboplastin 
Prothrombinase (clotting factor) is formed and acts upon prothrombin
Prothrombin is switched to its active form thrombin
Thrombin activates fibrinogen into its active form fibrin
Fibrin forms a network that traps blood (clots)

[Audio] The process of blood clotting begins when clotting factors are activated. This initial stage is vital because it triggers the entire clotting cascade. Following activation, these factors transform prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombin subsequently plays a pivotal role in converting fibrinogen into fibrin. Ultimately, this final step leads to the formation of a blood clot.. 

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[image] The three clot formation stages are activation of clotting factors conversion of prothrombin to thrombin and conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin

[Audio] When injury occurs, it's crucial that we control the formation of clots to prevent them from spreading throughout the body. Anticoagulant agents play a vital role in achieving this goal. They prevent clots from forming in the first place. Heparin and antithrombin are two examples of anticoagulants that help regulate blood clotting. However, when an injury occurs, it triggers the activation of clotting factors, which can overwhelm the effectiveness of these anticoagulants in that specific area of the body. This highlights the importance of controlling clot formation to prevent harm.. 

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Clots need to be controlled so they don’t spread throughout the body
Anticoagulants:
prevent clots from forming
Example -  heparin and antithrombin
Injury causes enough clotting factors to be activated that anticoagulants can’t work in that particular area of the body

[Audio] The process of clot retraction helps to enhance healing by condensing the clot and squeezing out serum from the plasma. This allows the body to focus on repairing damaged tissue rather than dealing with excess fluid. On the other hand, fibrinolysis is the process of breaking down the clot itself, using plasminogen as the enzyme responsible for this action. This ensures that the clot does not persist indefinitely, allowing the body to return to its normal state.. 

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Clot retraction:
condensing of clot
serum in plasma is squeezed out of clot
helps enhance healing
Fibrinolysis:
process of dissolving clot
plasminogen (plasma protein) breaks down clot (fibrin)

[Audio] The process of fibrinolysis is one by which plasmin breaks down the fibrin in a blood clot. This occurs when there is an injury and bleeding occurs. The body responds by forming a blood clot to stop the bleeding. However, if the clot becomes too large or persists for too long, it can cause problems. Fibrinolysis helps to break down the clot so that the body can heal properly.. 

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[image] Fibrinolysis involves plasmin breaking down the fibrin in a blood clot

[Audio] When injury or surgery occurs, it may require a blood transfusion to replace lost blood. However, this process carries a risk of adverse reactions. One such reaction is agglutination, where blood cells clump together, causing harm to the patient. Antigens on the surface of red blood cells trigger the production of antibodies in the plasma, which can bind to the antigens on the surface of the blood cells. The ABO blood group system is named based on these antigens and antibodies. This knowledge helps us identify compatible blood types during a transfusion, reducing the risk of adverse reactions.. 

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Injury or surgery can lead to a blood transfusion
Transfusion reactions/Aggulination:
clumping of blood cells (bad)
Antigens:
molecules on surface of erythrocytes
Antibodies:
proteins in plasma
Blood groups:
named according to antigen (ABO)

[Audio] Red blood cells in the ABO blood group system have either type A antigen, type B antigen, or a combination of both. Type A blood has only type A antigens, type B blood has only type B antigens, type AB blood has both type A and type B antigens, and type O blood has neither type A nor type B antigens. This determination is based on genetic factors.. 

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In the ABO blood group system, there are two types of antigens that may appear on the surface of the red blood cells, type A antigen and type B antigen.
Type A blood has type A antigens, type B blood has type B antigens, and type AB blood has both types of antigens. 
Type O blood has neither A nor B antigens. 
The types of antigens found on the surface of the red blood cells are genetically determined.

[Audio] Plasma from type A blood contains anti-B antibodies, which act against type B antigens. Plasma from type B blood contains anti-A antibodies, which act against type A antigens. Type AB blood plasma has neither type of antibody, and type O blood plasma has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies.. 

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Antibodies against the antigens are usually present in the plasma of blood. 
 Plasma from type A blood contains anti-B antibodies, which act against type B antigens; plasma from type B blood contains anti-A antibodies, which act against type A antigens. 
 Type AB blood plasma has neither type of antibody, and type O blood plasma has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies.

[Audio] The frequency of blood types among different populations can vary significantly. Among Caucasians in the United States, type O is the most common, making up nearly half of all individuals, followed closely by type A. Type B and type AB are less prevalent, with only 9% and 3% respectively being type B or AB. In contrast, African-Americans have a more even distribution, with type O still being the most common, but type A and type B also being relatively frequent. Only 7% of African-Americans are type AB. These differences highlight the importance of considering population-specific data when working with blood transfusions or other medical applications.. 

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In Caucasians in the United States, the distribution is type O, 47%;  type A, 41%; type B, 9%; and type AB, 3%. 
Among African-Americans, the distribution is type O, 46%; type A, 27%; type B, 20%; and type AB, 7%.

[Audio] People with type A blood have antibodies against type B blood, and people with type B blood have antibodies against type A blood. People with type AB blood do not have any antibodies against either type A or type B blood, while people with type O blood have antibodies against both type A and type B blood.. 

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[image] Illustrated are the antigens and antibodies of the four ABO blood types type A type B type AB and type O

[Audio] When red blood cells from a donor are transfused into a patient, it is crucial that they match the recipient's blood type. If this does not happen, something called agglutination can occur. Agglutination is essentially clumping, where the red blood cells stick together. This happens because the antibodies present in the patient's plasma recognize the mismatched blood type as foreign and bind to it, causing the cells to clump together. This process can lead to serious complications, including hemolysis, which is the breakdown of red blood cells. To avoid these risks, it is essential to ensure that the blood being transfused is compatible with the patient's blood type.. 

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[image] Agglutination is clumping When the wrong blood type is transfused into a patient agglutination clumping of the red blood cells will occur

[Audio] Blood donor and recipient compatibility relies on the presence or absence of specific antigens on red blood cells. Individuals with O blood have no antigens, making them universal donors. Anyone can receive blood from an O individual, as there are no antibodies present to react with the donated blood. Type A individuals have the A antigen, Type B individuals have the B antigen, Type AB individuals have both A and B antigens, and Type O individuals have neither. This information determines who can receive blood from whom. For example, Type A individuals can receive blood from either Type A or Type O individuals, since there are no antibodies present to react with the donated blood. Similarly, Type B individuals can receive blood from either Type B or Type O individuals. Type AB individuals can receive blood from any of the four blood types, including their own. However, Type O individuals can only receive blood from another Type O individual, as there are no antibodies present to react with the donated blood. Matching blood types is crucial for safe and successful blood transfusions. By understanding these compatibility rules, we can ensure safe and successful blood transfusions.. 

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Blood Donor and Recipient 
According to ABO Blood Types

O are universal donors because they have no antigens
Type A can receive A and O blood
Type B can receive B and O blood
Type AB can receive A, B, AB blood
Type O can only receive O blood

[Audio] The Rh factor plays a crucial role in determining whether an individual's blood can cause an immune response when exposed to Rh-positive blood. Rh-positive individuals possess Rh antigens on their red blood cells, while Rh-negative individuals lack these antigens. When an Rh-negative person is exposed to Rh-positive blood, antibodies will only develop if this exposure occurs through a transfusion or during pregnancy, when an Rh-negative mother becomes sensitized to her Rh-positive fetus's blood. This process can lead to complications in future pregnancies, making it essential for healthcare providers to monitor Rh-negative mothers closely.. 

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Rh positive means you have Rh antigens 
95 to 85% of the population is Rh+
Antibodies only develop if an Rh- person is exposed to Rh+ blood by transfusion or from mother to fetus

[Audio] When a mother who has no Rh factor, known as Rh-negative, becomes pregnant with a baby who has the Rh factor, known as Rh-positive, there's a risk of her body reacting to the presence of Rh-positive blood. This happens when the baby's blood leaks into the mother's bloodstream during pregnancy. The first time this occurs, the mother's immune system produces antibodies against the Rh antigen. These antibodies are designed to fight off any future exposure to Rh-positive blood. However, if the mother is repeatedly exposed to Rh-positive blood, her body will react by producing more antibodies, leading to a stronger response.. 

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If mother is Rh- and fetus is Rh+ the mother can be exposed to Rh+ blood if fetal blood leaks through placenta and mixes with mother’s blood. 
First time this occurs mother’s blood produces antibodies against antigens. 
Any repeated mixing of blood causes a reaction.

[Audio] Hemolytic disease of newborn can occur when a mother produces anti-Rh antibodies that cross the placenta and cause agglutination and hemolysis of fetal erythrocytes. This condition can be fatal to the fetus. However, it can be prevented if the mother is treated with RhoGAM, which contains antibodies against Rh antigens.. 

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This condition 
occurs when mother produces anti-Rh antibodies that cross placenta and agglutination and hemolysis of fetal erythrocytes occurs
can be fatal to fetus
prevented if mother is treated with RhoGAM which contains antibodies against Rh antigens

[Audio] Hemolytic disease of the newborn occurs when a mother who is Rh-negative gives birth to a child with Rh-positive blood. This happens because her immune system produces antibodies against the Rh antigen on the surface of the red blood cells of the fetus. These antibodies can cross the placenta and destroy the fetal red blood cells, leading to anemia and jaundice in the newborn.. 

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[image] Hemolytic disease of the newborn is illustrated in which a Rh negative mother can produce antibodies against a Rh positive fetus

[Audio] The complete blood count provides valuable information about our blood. One key aspect is the hematocrit, which measures the percentage of red blood cells in our blood. This helps us understand how well our body is producing these essential cells. Another important indicator is hemoglobin, which determines the amount of this protein in our blood. A low level of hemoglobin can indicate anemia, a condition where we have fewer red blood cells than normal. This information is crucial for diagnosing and treating various health issues.. 

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Complete blood count:
provides information such as RBC count, hemoglobin, hematocrit, and WBC count
Hematocrit:
% of total blood volume composed of RBC 
Hemoglobin:
determines amount of hemoglobin 
indicate anemia

[Audio] The process of performing a hematocrit involves spinning whole blood in a centrifuge. As it spins, the formed elements separate from the plasma. This allows us to measure the proportion of red blood cells in the blood.. 

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[image] Shown is the process of performing a hematocrit Whole blood is spun in a centrifuge and the formed elements separate from the plasma

[Audio] Blood tests can provide valuable information about our health. The prothrombin time test measures how long it takes for blood to start clotting, which usually takes between nine and twelve seconds. This test helps doctors identify bleeding disorders or the risk of bleeding during surgery. The white blood cell count test measures the total number of white blood cells in the body, helping doctors diagnose infections and monitor the effectiveness of treatments for conditions such as leukemia. By analyzing these test results, doctors can develop effective treatment plans for patients with blood disorders.. 

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Prothrombin time:
time it takes for blood to begin clotting (9 to 12 sec.)
White blood cell count:
total number of white blood cells

[Audio] The white blood cell differential count determines the percentage of each of the five types of leukocytes present in the blood. Neutrophils account for 60 to 70 percent of all leukocytes, while lymphocytes make up 20 to 25 percent. Monocytes range from 3 to 8 percent, eosinophils from 2 to 4 percent, and basophils from 0.5 to 1 percent. This test helps identify any abnormalities in the immune system.. 

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White blood cell differential count:
Determines the % of each 5 kinds of leukocytes
neutrophils:  60 to 70%
lymphocytes:  20 to 25%
monocytes:  3 to 8%
eosinophils:  2 to 4%
basophils:  0.5 to 1%

[Audio] White blood cells have a crucial role in defending our bodies against infections. A condition called leukopenia occurs when there are fewer white blood cells than normal, which can be caused by factors like radiation, chemotherapy, tumors, and viral infections. In contrast, a condition called leukocytosis happens when there are more white blood cells than usual, often resulting from infections or even leukemia. It is vital to comprehend these conditions so that they can be accurately diagnosed and treated.. 

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Leukopenia:
low white blood cell count 
caused by radiation, chemotherapy drugs, tumors, viral infections
Leukocytosis:
high white blood cell count
caused by infections and leukemia

Start With 1 of These Slides

Blood is one of the most vital fluids in our bodies, responsible for delivering oxygen and nutrients to our cells while removing waste products. The functions of blood include transport of gases, nutrients, and waste products, regulation of pH and osmosis, maintenance of body temperature, protection against foreign substances, and clot formation.

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Blood plays a crucial role in transporting essential substances throughout the body. It carries gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, allowing cells to breathe and remove waste products. The blood also transports nutrients like glucose and amino acids, providing energy and building blocks for growth and repair. Furthermore, it removes waste products like urea and creatinine, preventing their accumulation and potential harm. In addition, blood carries processed molecules like hormones and vitamins, regulating various bodily functions. Lastly, it maintains body temperature by transporting heat from the core to the skin, where it can be lost.

Blood is composed of two main parts: plasma and formed elements. Plasma makes up approximately 55 percent of our blood, and it is a pale, yellow liquid that surrounds our cells. This liquid is mostly made up of water, with smaller amounts of proteins and other substances. On the other hand, formed elements account for about 45 percent of our blood, and they are made up of cells and cell fragments. These include erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells, leukocytes, and thrombocytes.

Plasma proteins play a crucial role in maintaining our body's homeostasis. Albumin, making up 58% of these proteins, helps regulate water balance within our bodies, which is essential for proper bodily functions, such as maintaining blood pressure and facilitating waste removal. Globulins, accounting for 38% of plasma proteins, contribute significantly to our immune system, helping to fight off infections and diseases by recognizing and binding to foreign substances, such as bacteria and viruses. Fibrinogen, comprising only 4% of plasma proteins, plays a vital role in clot formation, helping to form clots when we experience injuries or bleeding, which stops the bleeding and promotes healing. These three types of plasma proteins work together to maintain our overall health and well being, and without them, our bodies would not be able to function properly.

Blood consists of two main components: plasma and formed elements. Plasma makes up about 55 percent of the total blood volume and is a pale, yellow liquid that surrounds the cells. It is mostly composed of water, with smaller amounts of proteins and other substances. In contrast, formed elements account for approximately 45 percent of the total blood volume and comprise red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. These cells and cell fragments play crucial roles in maintaining our overall health.

In the early stages of life, hematopoiesis takes place in multiple tissues. The liver, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and red bone marrow all play a role in producing formed elements during fetal development.

Blood is produced from a single population of cells called stem cells, or hemocytoblasts. These stem cells have the ability to differentiate into various cell lines, resulting in the formation of distinct types of formed elements. This process is known as hematopoiesis.

Hematopoiesis begins with the hemocytoblast, a type of stem cell. This cell gives rise to all the different types of blood cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. The process starts with the self replication of the hemocytoblast, followed by its differentiation into more specialized cells.

Red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, have a unique disk like shape with thick edges. During their development, they lose their nucleus, which allows them to focus on producing hemoglobin, the protein responsible for carrying oxygen throughout the body. These cells have a remarkable lifespan of 120 days, playing a crucial role in delivering oxygen to our tissues.

Hemoglobin plays a crucial role in the transportation of oxygen throughout our bodies. As the main component of red blood cells, each hemoglobin protein is attached to a heme molecule containing one iron atom. Oxygen binds to this iron atom, resulting in oxyhemoglobin, also known as hemoglobin with an oxygen molecule attached. This process is essential for delivering oxygen to our tissues and organs, making it possible for us to survive.

Hemoglobin is composed of four subunits, each consisting of a globin and a heme group. Two of these subunits are alpha globins, while the other two are beta globins. Each heme group is associated with a globin and contains one iron atom. This unique structure allows hemoglobin to bind to oxygen and transport it throughout the body.

When decreased oxygen levels are present in the blood, it triggers a response from the kidneys to increase the production of erythropoietin. This hormone then stimulates the red bone marrow to produce more erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells. As a result, there is an increase in the number of erythrocytes in the blood, which ultimately leads to an increase in blood oxygen levels.

The body tightly regulates red blood cell production to ensure sufficient oxygen delivery to tissues. The process starts in the bone marrow, where stem cells differentiate into red blood cells under the influence of erythropoietin, a hormone produced by the kidneys in response to low blood oxygen levels. This hormone signals the bone marrow to increase red blood cell production, resulting in an increased number of red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream, which allows for optimal oxygen delivery to tissues.

As old red blood cells reach the end of their lifespan, they're removed from the bloodstream by specialized cells called macrophages. These macrophages can be found in the spleen and liver. Once removed, the hemoglobin within these cells begins to break down. The globin portion of hemoglobin is then converted into its constituent amino acids. Meanwhile, the iron from the hemoglobin is recycled back into the body's circulation. The heme molecule, which is a key component of hemoglobin, is converted into bilirubin. This bilirubin is then transported to the liver, where it's incorporated into bile and released into the small intestine.

Hemoglobin breakdown occurs when it's no longer needed by the body. This process takes place in specialized cells called macrophages. Within these cells, hemoglobin is broken down into two main components: heme and globin. Heme is further divided into bilirubin and iron, while globin is separated into its individual amino acids. This breakdown allows the body to recycle the essential nutrients and eliminate any waste products.

White blood cells, also known as leukocytes, lack hemoglobin, unlike red blood cells. They are larger than erythrocytes and contain a nucleus. The primary functions of white blood cells include fighting infections and removing dead cells and debris from the body through a process called phagocytosis.

The granulocytes are a type of white blood cell containing specific granules within their cytoplasm. They play a crucial role in the immune system by engulfing foreign particles and bacteria, thereby protecting against infection. There are three main types of granulocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. Neutrophils are the most abundant type, accounting for approximately 50-70% of all white blood cells. They can stay in the bloodstream for only 10 to 12 hours before migrating to tissues, where they continue to phagocytize foreign substances, helping to eliminate pathogens and prevent infections from spreading.

Eosinophils reduce inflammation by releasing enzymes that break down and remove damaged tissue. They also destroy certain parasites, such as worms, by engulfing them with their granules. Basophils, although rare, are primarily involved in allergic reactions. When activated, they release histamine, causing blood vessels to dilate and smooth muscle to contract, resulting in increased permeability and swelling. Furthermore, basophils release heparin, a natural anticoagulant that prevents blood clotting.

There are three main categories of agranulocytes, also known as non phagocytic leukocytes. Monocytes are the largest type of white blood cell, and they play a crucial role in the immune system by producing macrophages. Lymphocytes, on the other hand, are responsible for the body's immune response. They come in several different forms, including T cells and B cells, which work together to produce antibodies. These antibodies help to fight off infections and diseases.

The different types of white blood cells include neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes. Each type plays a unique role in the immune system. Neutrophils fight bacterial infections, basophils are involved in allergic reactions, eosinophils eliminate parasites, lymphocytes mediate cell based immunity, and monocytes mature into macrophages that engulf and digest foreign particles and cellular debris.

Platelets are tiny fragments of cells that have a small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by a cell membrane. They're produced in the red bone marrow from larger cells called megakaryocytes. Small fragments break off from these megakaryocytes and enter the bloodstream as platelets. These platelets play a crucial role in preventing excessive bleeding.

When blood vessels are damaged, blood can leak into other tissues and disrupt normal function. This leakage can lead to bleeding, swelling, and even organ failure if left untreated. In such cases, it's crucial to replace the lost blood to restore normal physiological processes. This replacement can occur through the production of new blood cells or by receiving a blood transfusion.

When blood vessels are injured, vascular spasm occurs, causing the blood vessel to constrict temporarily and reducing blood flow to the affected area, thereby slowing down bleeding. Platelet plugs also form, aggregating at the site of injury to create a temporary seal over small breaks in the blood vessel. Additionally, blood clotting, or coagulation, plays a crucial role in stopping bleeding by forming a stable blood clot that can withstand the pressure of blood flowing through the vessel.

When smooth muscle within the blood vessel wall contracts, it causes a temporary constriction, known as vascular spasm. This constriction can completely block small blood vessels, stopping the flow of blood through them. The contraction is triggered by chemicals released by damaged blood vessel cells and by platelets.

Platelet plugs play a crucial role in preserving the integrity of damaged blood vessels. The process of platelet plug formation can be broken down into several stages, although in reality, many of these steps take place simultaneously. Initially, platelets adhere to the exposed collagen within the damaged blood vessel wall. Following this, platelets become activated, alter their shape, and release chemical signals.

Fibrinogen forms bridges between the fibrinogen receptors of numerous platelets, resulting in a platelet plug. This process is called platelet aggregation.

During platelet plug formation, platelets adhere to the surface of a damaged vessel and to other platelets, thereby reducing blood loss. This process helps to prevent excessive bleeding from injured vessels. As platelets aggregate, they release chemical signals that attract more platelets to the site, forming a platelet plug that can seal off small wounds.

Blood can be transformed from a liquid to a gel through the process of blood clotting. This transformation occurs when a network of thread like proteins called fibrin traps blood cells and fluid. The formation of this clot depends on the presence of clotting factors, which are proteins found in plasma. These clotting factors are only activated following an injury, such as a cut or a broken bone. They are produced by the liver and require vitamin K to function properly. Without these clotting factors, the body would not be able to form clots and stop bleeding in response to injury.

The process of clot formation commences when injury occurs to a blood vessel. Exposure of connective tissue or the release of thromboplastin triggers the activation of previously inactive clotting factors. Prothrombinase, a key clotting factor, is then formed and acts on prothrombin, converting it into its active form, thrombin. Thrombin plays a crucial role by activating fibrinogen, transforming it into its active form, fibrin. As fibrin forms a network, it traps blood, resulting in the formation of a clot.

The process of blood clotting begins when clotting factors are activated. This initial stage is vital because it triggers the entire clotting cascade. Following activation, these factors transform prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombin subsequently plays a pivotal role in converting fibrinogen into fibrin. Ultimately, this final step leads to the formation of a blood clot.

When injury occurs, it's crucial that we control the formation of clots to prevent them from spreading throughout the body. Anticoagulant agents play a vital role in achieving this goal. They prevent clots from forming in the first place. Heparin and antithrombin are two examples of anticoagulants that help regulate blood clotting. However, when an injury occurs, it triggers the activation of clotting factors, which can overwhelm the effectiveness of these anticoagulants in that specific area of the body. This highlights the importance of controlling clot formation to prevent harm.

The process of clot retraction helps to enhance healing by condensing the clot and squeezing out serum from the plasma. This allows the body to focus on repairing damaged tissue rather than dealing with excess fluid. On the other hand, fibrinolysis is the process of breaking down the clot itself, using plasminogen as the enzyme responsible for this action. This ensures that the clot does not persist indefinitely, allowing the body to return to its normal state.

The process of fibrinolysis is one by which plasmin breaks down the fibrin in a blood clot. This occurs when there is an injury and bleeding occurs. The body responds by forming a blood clot to stop the bleeding. However, if the clot becomes too large or persists for too long, it can cause problems. Fibrinolysis helps to break down the clot so that the body can heal properly.

When injury or surgery occurs, it may require a blood transfusion to replace lost blood. However, this process carries a risk of adverse reactions. One such reaction is agglutination, where blood cells clump together, causing harm to the patient. Antigens on the surface of red blood cells trigger the production of antibodies in the plasma, which can bind to the antigens on the surface of the blood cells. The A-B-O blood group system is named based on these antigens and antibodies. This knowledge helps us identify compatible blood types during a transfusion, reducing the risk of adverse reactions.

Red blood cells in the A-B-O blood group system have either type A antigen, type B antigen, or a combination of both. Type A blood has only type A antigens, type B blood has only type B antigens, type AB blood has both type A and type B antigens, and type O blood has neither type A nor type B antigens. This determination is based on genetic factors.

Plasma from type A blood contains anti B antibodies, which act against type B antigens. Plasma from type B blood contains anti A antibodies, which act against type A antigens. Type AB blood plasma has neither type of antibody, and type O blood plasma has both anti A and anti B antibodies.

The frequency of blood types among different populations can vary significantly. Among Caucasians in the United States, type O is the most common, making up nearly half of all individuals, followed closely by type A Type B and type AB are less prevalent, with only 9% and 3% respectively being type B or AB. In contrast, African Americans have a more even distribution, with type O still being the most common, but type A and type B also being relatively frequent. Only 7% of African Americans are type AB. These differences highlight the importance of considering population specific data when working with blood transfusions or other medical applications.

People with type A blood have antibodies against type B blood, and people with type B blood have antibodies against type A blood. People with type AB blood do not have any antibodies against either type A or type B blood, while people with type O blood have antibodies against both type A and type B blood.

When red blood cells from a donor are transfused into a patient, it is crucial that they match the recipient's blood type. If this does not happen, something called agglutination can occur. Agglutination is essentially clumping, where the red blood cells stick together. This happens because the antibodies present in the patient's plasma recognize the mismatched blood type as foreign and bind to it, causing the cells to clump together. This process can lead to serious complications, including hemolysis, which is the breakdown of red blood cells. To avoid these risks, it is essential to ensure that the blood being transfused is compatible with the patient's blood type.

Blood donor and recipient compatibility relies on the presence or absence of specific antigens on red blood cells. Individuals with O blood have no antigens, making them universal donors. Anyone can receive blood from an O individual, as there are no antibodies present to react with the donated blood. Type A individuals have the A antigen, Type B individuals have the B antigen, Type AB individuals have both A and B antigens, and Type O individuals have neither. This information determines who can receive blood from whom. For example, Type A individuals can receive blood from either Type A or Type O individuals, since there are no antibodies present to react with the donated blood. Similarly, Type B individuals can receive blood from either Type B or Type O individuals. Type AB individuals can receive blood from any of the four blood types, including their own. However, Type O individuals can only receive blood from another Type O individual, as there are no antibodies present to react with the donated blood. Matching blood types is crucial for safe and successful blood transfusions. By understanding these compatibility rules, we can ensure safe and successful blood transfusions.

The Rh factor plays a crucial role in determining whether an individual's blood can cause an immune response when exposed to Rh positive blood. Rh positive individuals possess Rh antigens on their red blood cells, while Rh negative individuals lack these antigens. When an Rh negative person is exposed to Rh positive blood, antibodies will only develop if this exposure occurs through a transfusion or during pregnancy, when an Rh negative mother becomes sensitized to her Rh positive fetus's blood. This process can lead to complications in future pregnancies, making it essential for healthcare providers to monitor Rh negative mothers closely.

When a mother who has no Rh factor, known as Rh negative, becomes pregnant with a baby who has the Rh factor, known as Rh positive, there's a risk of her body reacting to the presence of Rh positive blood. This happens when the baby's blood leaks into the mother's bloodstream during pregnancy. The first time this occurs, the mother's immune system produces antibodies against the Rh antigen. These antibodies are designed to fight off any future exposure to Rh positive blood. However, if the mother is repeatedly exposed to Rh positive blood, her body will react by producing more antibodies, leading to a stronger response.

Hemolytic disease of newborn can occur when a mother produces anti Rh antibodies that cross the placenta and cause agglutination and hemolysis of fetal erythrocytes. This condition can be fatal to the fetus. However, it can be prevented if the mother is treated with RhoGAM, which contains antibodies against Rh antigens.

Hemolytic disease of the newborn occurs when a mother who is Rh negative gives birth to a child with Rh positive blood. This happens because her immune system produces antibodies against the Rh antigen on the surface of the red blood cells of the fetus. These antibodies can cross the placenta and destroy the fetal red blood cells, leading to anemia and jaundice in the newborn.

The complete blood count provides valuable information about our blood. One key aspect is the hematocrit, which measures the percentage of red blood cells in our blood. This helps us understand how well our body is producing these essential cells. Another important indicator is hemoglobin, which determines the amount of this protein in our blood. A low level of hemoglobin can indicate anemia, a condition where we have fewer red blood cells than normal. This information is crucial for diagnosing and treating various health issues.

The process of performing a hematocrit involves spinning whole blood in a centrifuge. As it spins, the formed elements separate from the plasma. This allows us to measure the proportion of red blood cells in the blood.

Blood tests can provide valuable information about our health. The prothrombin time test measures how long it takes for blood to start clotting, which usually takes between nine and twelve seconds. This test helps doctors identify bleeding disorders or the risk of bleeding during surgery. The white blood cell count test measures the total number of white blood cells in the body, helping doctors diagnose infections and monitor the effectiveness of treatments for conditions such as leukemia. By analyzing these test results, doctors can develop effective treatment plans for patients with blood disorders.

The white blood cell differential count determines the percentage of each of the five types of leukocytes present in the blood. Neutrophils account for 60 to 70 percent of all leukocytes, while lymphocytes make up 20 to 25 percent. Monocytes range from 3 to 8 percent, eosinophils from 2 to 4 percent, and basophils from 0.5 to 1 percent. This test helps identify any abnormalities in the immune system.

White blood cells have a crucial role in defending our bodies against infections. A condition called leukopenia occurs when there are fewer white blood cells than normal, which can be caused by factors like radiation, chemotherapy, tumors, and viral infections. In contrast, a condition called leukocytosis happens when there are more white blood cells than usual, often resulting from infections or even leukemia. It is vital to comprehend these conditions so that they can be accurately diagnosed and treated.