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1. Discuss how Miller-Urey experiment demonstrated the chemical evolution of life. This theory was further supported by the experimental evidences provides by Stanley L. Miller and Harold Urey in 1952. They created early earth like reducing conditions in laboratory scale by creating electric discharge in a flask containing CH4, H2, NH3 gas along with water vapour at 800o C as shown in figure. The analysis of the products synthesized in this experiment suggests the formation of amino acids, nucleobases, pigments, fats and sugar molecules. These experimental evidences strongly support the chemical evolution of biomolecules and from abiogenic molecules. These building blocks then polymerize to synthesize complex biopolymers. 2. Explain the structure and functions of a Eukaryotic Cell with a neat labelled diagram. 1. Eukaryotic cells are characterised by a true nucleus. 2. The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter. 3. This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals. 4. The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of nutrients and electrolytes in and out of the cells. It is also responsible for cell to cell communication. 5. They reproduce sexually as well as asexually. 6. There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. For eg., the plant cell contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other plastids, whereas the animal cells do not..

3. Discuss the properties and functions of carbohydrates. Properties of Carbohydrates: ➢ Structure: Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, often in a 1:2:1 ratio (CH2O). ➢ Solubility: They are generally soluble in water, especially monosaccharides and disaccharides, due to the presence of hydroxyl (-OH) groups. ➢ Sweetness: Many carbohydrates, particularly simple sugars, have a sweet taste. ➢ Solidity: At room temperature, many carbohydrates are solid. ➢ Energy Storage: Carbohydrates are a primary source of energy for the body, broken down to release glucose for cellular processes. ➢ Structural Component: Some carbohydrates, like cellulose in plants and chitin in insects, form structural components of cells and tissues. ➢ Glycosidic Bonds: Monosaccharides are linked together by glycosidic bonds to form disaccharides and polysaccharides..

4. Summarize the properties and functions of proteins..

5. Discuss the properties and functions of Lipids Properties of Lipids : Lipids are a family of organic compounds, composed of fats and oils. These molecules yield high energy and are responsible for different functions within the human body. ➢ Lipids are oily or greasy nonpolar molecules, stored in the adipose tissue of the body. ➢ Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds, mainly composed of hydrocarbon chains. ➢ Lipids are energy-rich organic molecules, which provide energy for different life processes. ➢ Lipids are a class of compounds characterised by their solubility in nonpolar solvents and insolubility in water. ➢ Lipids are significant in biological systems as they form a mechanical barrier dividing a cell from the external environment known as the cell membrane. Functions: ➢ Energy Storage: Lipids, particularly triglycerides, are the body's primary energy reserve, providing a concentrated source of energy that can be readily broken down for fuel. They store more energy per gram than carbohydrates or proteins. ➢ Structural Component of Cell Membranes: Lipids, especially phospholipids, are a key component of cell membranes, forming a bilayer that separates the inside of the cell from its external environment. This bilayer acts as a barrier, controlling which molecules can enter and exit the cell..

➢ Hormone Synthesis: Certain lipids, like cholesterol, are precursors to steroid hormones, which play crucial roles in regulating various bodily processes, such as growth, development, and reproduction. ➢ Fat-Soluble Vitamin Absorption: Lipids aid in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) from the gut. ➢ Insulation and Protection: Lipids, particularly subcutaneous fat, provide insulation against temperature changes, helping to maintain a stable body temperature. They also cushion and protect vital organs from injury. ➢ Signalling and Communication: Some lipids act as signalling molecules, transmitting messages between cells and influencing various cellular processes. 6. Write a short on properties and functions on i) Enzymes ii) vitamins iii) hormones Enzymes are proteins that help speed up metabolism, or the chemical reactions in our bodies. They build some substances and break others down. All living things have enzymes. One of the most important roles of enzymes is to aid in digestion. Digestion is the process of turning the food we eat into energy. For example, there are enzymes in our saliva, pancreas, intestines and stomach. They break down fats, proteins and carbohydrates. Enzymes use these nutrients for growth and cell repair. Functions of Enzymes The enzymes perform a number of functions in our bodies. These include: 1. Enzymes help in signal transduction. The most common enzyme used in the process includes protein kinase that catalyses the phosphorylation of proteins. 2. They break down large molecules into smaller substances that can be easily absorbed by the body. 3. They help in generating energy in the body. ATP synthase is the enzyme involved in the synthesis of energy. 4. Enzymes are responsible for the movement of ions across the plasma membrane. 5. Enzymes perform a number of biochemical reactions, including oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis, etc. to eliminate the non-nutritive substances from the body. 6. They function to reorganize the internal structure of the cell to regulate cellular activities..

vitamins :.

Hormones :.

7. Describe the production of cellulose-based water filters and mention its advantages..

8. Write a short note on PHA and PLA in bioplastics production PHA (Polyhydroxyalkanoates) and PLA (Polylactic Acid) are both biodegradable bioplastics, but PHA is produced by microorganisms through fermentation, while PLA is derived from renewable resources like corn starch or sugarcane. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are biopolymers as they offer a sustainable alternative to conventional plastics. They can replace the linear use and disposal practices of plastics with a circular life cycle. They find use in a wide range of applications ranging from packaging to medical devices. Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable thermoplastic polyester derived from renewable resources like corn or sugarcane, offering an alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastics. It's known for its biodegradability, biocompatibility, and versatility in various applications, including packaging, 3D printing, and biomedical devices. 9. Describe the role of lipids in biodiesel and detergents production.

10. Discuss the importance of Nucleic acids in the production of vaccines and diagnosis Nucleic Acid Vaccines: Nucleic acid vaccines have the potential to be safe, effective, and cost-effective. The immune responses induced by nucleic acid vaccines only target the selected antigen in the pathogen. Nucleic acid-based vaccines, including DNA (as plasmids) and RNA [as messenger RNA (mRNA)] vaccines, exhibit promising potential in targeting various indications and diseases. Types of Nucleic Acid Vaccines: DNA vaccines: Use DNA as the genetic material. RNA vaccines: Use RNA as the genetic material..

Mechanism: The genetic material (DNA or RNA) provides instructions for making a specific protein from the pathogen. Once inside host cells, this genetic material is read by the cell’s own protein making machinery. The cell then manufactures antigens (foreign proteins), which trigger an immune response. Advantages: ▪ No live components, reducing the risk of vaccine-triggered disease. ▪ Relatively easy to manufacture. ▪ Immune response involves both B cells and T cells. Challenges: ▪ Some RNA vaccines require ultra-cold storage. ▪ Booster shots may be necessary..

11. Explain the fabrication of enzymes-based biosensors. Large-Scale Fabrication Techniques: ▪ Roll-to-roll methods (e.g., screen-printing, inkjet printing, 3D printing) enable mass production. ▪ Integration into flexible, wearable, and cost-effective point-of-use devices is achievable.

12. Discuss the applications of enzymes in food processing and detergent formulation. Detergent formulation :.

13. Discuss the role of enzymes in textile processing..

14. Write a short note on Proteins in food production..