[Audio] Memory Concepts I. Learning and Memory: Basic Definitions 1. What is learning? a. Process of which new information is acquired for storage 2. What are the properties of learning? a. Initiated by experience b. Selects information that enters into memory 3. Fill in the blank: learning is like a ____ a. Filter 4. What is memory? a. Information extracted from experience and stored for later recovery/use 5. What are the properties of memory? a. It persists after the remembered experience ends b. It can enter a latent state before being activated by a retrieval process c. The content of memory reflects the experience that created it 6. T/F: Short term memory isn't considered real memory because it does not endure beyond experience a. False; it only endures for seconds but those seconds count 7. What is a latent state? a. The stored form of a memory; long term memories must be in this state so that they can endure 8. T/F: Learning and Memory are directly observed so no explanatory power is needed. a. False- they are inferred; explanatory power is crucial 9. How do psychologists study learning and memory? a. Systematically vary experience b. Monitor for later changes in behavior that vary with differences in experience c. Draw data based inferences about the intervening learning and memory process that connect the two 10. How do neuroscientists study learning and memory? a. Manipulate the brain, observe behavioral changes b. Vary experience and observe behavioral changes in the brain 11. What is the engram and what is its significance in learning and memory? a. The neurobiological representation of stored information Memory b. The process by which engrams are formed or encoded Learning. 

Scene 1

Memory Concepts  
I. Learning and Memory: Basic Definitions  
1. What is learning?  
a. Process of which new information is acquired for storage  
2. What are the properties of learning?  
a. Initiated by experience  
b. Selects information that enters into memory  
3. Fill in the blank: learning is like a ____  
a. Filter  
4. What is memory?  
a. Information extracted from experience and stored for later recovery/use 
5. What are the properties of memory?  
a. It persists after the remembered experience ends  
b. It can enter a latent state before being activated by a retrieval process 
c. The content of memory reflects the experience that created it  
6. T/F: Short term memory isn’t considered real memory because it does not endure 
beyond experience  
a. False; it only endures for seconds but those seconds count  
7. What is a latent state?  
a. The stored form of a memory; long term memories must be in this state so 
that they can endure  
8. T/F: Learning and Memory are directly observed so no explanatory power is 
needed.  
a. False- they are inferred; explanatory power is crucial  
9. How do psychologists study learning and memory?  
a. Systematically vary experience  
b. Monitor for later changes in behavior that vary with differences in  
experience  
c. Draw data based inferences about the intervening learning and memory 
process that connect the two  
10. How do neuroscientists study learning and memory?  
a. Manipulate the brain, observe behavioral changes  
b. Vary experience and observe behavioral changes in the brain  
11. What is the engram and what is its significance in learning and memory? 
a. The neurobiological representation of stored information  
○ Memory  
b. The process by which engrams are formed or encoded  
○ Learning

[Audio] 12. What does behavioral neuroscience aim to understand? a. Brain-behavior relationships, using both psychological and neuroscientific methods II. Fundamental Properties of All Memory 1. Ebbinghuas's forgetting curve illustrated what? a. Most memory loss occurs within the hour but the bare bones of a memory endures after many details are culled 2. William James proposed a ______ process of memory. What does this mean? a. Multi stage b. Multiple memories are initiated at the same time and last for different amounts of time. 3. What is consolidation? What is the process? a. The process by which a long term memory gradually stabilizes for long-term storage. b. Starts with original learning experience c. Occurs in parallel with short term memory 4. How does sleep affect consolidation? a. Learning followed by sleep has better retention 5. With the case of HM, Brenda Milner found: a. HM had intact long term memory b. Shallow retrograde amnesia Limited memories of the months prior to surgery c. Profound anterograde amnesia HM was unable to form new long term memories Short term memory seemed fine 6. HM had a ______ deficit. What does this mean? a. Consolidation b. The surgery disrupted memories still in in the process of consolidation (shallow retrograde amnesia) and prevented the consolidation of new long term memories (profound anterograde amnesia) 7. What are the recency and primacy effects? What period of learning is most at risk? a. Recency effect: remembering the newest terms b. Primary effect: remembering the first terms c. Information learned in the middle is most at risk because it is being interfered with by both the recent information and primary information. 8. T/F: short term memory and long term memory are independent processes. a. True. 

Scene 2

12. What does behavioral neuroscience aim to understand? 
a. Brain-behavior relationships, using both psychological and neuroscientific 
methods  
II. Fundamental Properties of All Memory  
1. Ebbinghuas’s forgetting curve illustrated what?  
a. Most memory loss occurs within the hour but the bare bones of a memory 
endures after many details are culled  
2. William James proposed a ______ process of memory. What does this mean? 
a. Multi stage  
b. Multiple memories are initiated at the same time and last for different 
amounts of time.  
3. What is consolidation? What is the process?  
a. The process by which a long term memory gradually stabilizes for  
long-term storage.  
b. Starts with original learning experience  
c. Occurs in parallel with short term memory  
4. How does sleep affect consolidation?  
a. Learning followed by sleep has better retention  
5. With the case of HM, Brenda Milner found:  
a. HM had intact long term memory  
b. Shallow retrograde amnesia  
○ Limited memories of the months prior to surgery  
c. Profound anterograde amnesia  
○ HM was unable to form new long term memories  
○ Short term memory seemed fine  
6. HM had a ______ deficit. What does this mean?  
a. Consolidation  
b. The surgery disrupted memories still in in the process of consolidation 
(shallow retrograde amnesia) and prevented the consolidation of new long 
term memories (profound anterograde amnesia)  
7. What are the recency and primacy effects? What period of learning is most at 
risk?  
a. Recency effect: remembering the newest terms  
b. Primary effect: remembering the first terms  
c. Information learned in the middle is most at risk because it is being  
interfered with by both the recent information and primary information.  
8. T/F: short term memory and long term memory are independent processes. 
a. True

[Audio] 9. What is a retrieval cue? a. An element of a previous learning experience that causes remembered information to be reactivated b. The more elaborate and complete a retrieval cue is, the better the reactivation is 10. What is memory interference? a. Multiple memories are reactivated by the same cue b. Prevents desired memory from being retrieved 11. T/F: memory is like a filing cabinet a. False- it is constructed through retrieval 12. What are schemas? a. Organized structures of knowledge III. Memory Taxonomy: Different Memory Types (Defined by Content) 1. What are the two major types of memory? Describe them. a. Declarative Explicit memories Can be described using language Aware that you are remembering something Like remembering definitions on an exam b. Non- declarative Implicit memories Cannot be described using language Not aware you are remembering something- you just know Mean joke Dr. Claparede plays on the amnesia patient Acquired through: pavlovian learning, instrumental learning, stimulus response learning, and non-associative learning 2. What are the two types of declarative memory? Describe them. a. Episodic memory Conscious recollection of what happened, where it happened and when it happened (relating to you) b. Semantic memory Facts about your environment and the world You know you are a high school graduate without needing to think specifically about your high school graduation 3. What is mental time travel? a. Remembering past experiences and imagining future experiences b. Altered time scale you can control 4. What are the two types of non declarative memory? Describe them.. 

Scene 3

9. What is a retrieval cue?  
a. An element of a previous learning experience that causes remembered 
information to be reactivated 
b. The more elaborate and complete a retrieval cue is, the better the  
reactivation is  
10. What is memory interference?  
a. Multiple memories are reactivated by the same cue  
b. Prevents desired memory from being retrieved  
11. T/F: memory is like a filing cabinet  
a. False- it is constructed through retrieval  
12. What are schemas?  
a. Organized structures of knowledge  
III. Memory Taxonomy: Different Memory Types (Defined by Content)   
1. What are the two major types of memory? Describe them.  
a. Declarative  
○ Explicit memories  
○ Can be described using language  
○ Aware that you are remembering something  
● Like remembering definitions on an exam  
b. Non- declarative  
○ Implicit memories  
○ Cannot be described using language  
○ Not aware you are remembering something- you just know  
● Mean joke Dr. Claparede plays on the amnesia patient  
○ Acquired through: pavlovian learning, instrumental learning,  
stimulus response learning, and non-associative learning  
2. What are the two types of declarative memory? Describe them.  
a. Episodic memory  
○ Conscious recollection of what happened, where it happened and  
when it happened (relating to you)  
b. Semantic memory  
○ Facts about your environment and the world  
● You know you are a high school graduate without needing  
to think specifically about your high school graduation  
3. What is mental time travel?  
a. Remembering past experiences and imagining future experiences  
b. Altered time scale you can control  
4. What are the two types of non declarative memory? Describe them.

[Audio] a. Emotional memory Emotional associations with a stimuli in the environment b. Procedural memory Implicit memory for how to perform complex tasks Still may require conscious attention Cellular and Synaptic Mechanisms of Memory IV. Neural Plasticity and Memory 1. Explain the term "plasticity" a. Able to be shaped, altered and changed by experience b. Brains are plastic c. Thought to be the biological basis of memory 2. What is neurogenesis? Which brain areas undergo neurogenesis throughout lifespan? a. The birth of new neurons b. Hippocampus and olfactory bulb 3. What is the problem with neurogenesis? a. Compared to other animals, neurogenesis is mostly restricted to development in humans 4. What is synaptic plasticity? a. Changes in synapses that alter their communication 5. What is the Hebbian synapse? a. A presynaptic neuron that fires repeatedly with a postsynaptic neuron will result in a stronger connection between the two neurons. 6. Neurons that _____ together _____ together a. Fire b. Wire 7. What are the mechanisms of synaptic plasticity? a. Synaptogenesis Addition of new synapses, increasing the total number of contacts b. Changes in the function of existing synapses Presynaptic neuron then releases more neurotransmitters (result of synaptic plasticity) Postsynaptic membrane becomes more sensitive to neurotransmitter release (result of synaptic plasticity) More responsive to particular input V. Long Term Potentiation 1. Explain the Bliss & Lomo (1937) rabbit hippocampal study a. Stimulated the perforant path so that axons would dump glutamate in the. 

Scene 4

a. Emotional memory  
○ Emotional associations with a stimuli in the environment  
b. Procedural memory  
○ Implicit memory for how to perform complex tasks  
○ Still may require conscious attention 
Cellular and Synaptic Mechanisms of Memory  
IV. Neural Plasticity and Memory  
1. Explain the term “plasticity”  
a. Able to be shaped, altered and changed by experience  
b. Brains are plastic  
c. Thought to be the biological basis of memory  
2. What is neurogenesis? Which brain areas undergo neurogenesis throughout 
lifespan?  
a. The birth of new neurons  
b. Hippocampus and olfactory bulb  
3. What is the problem with neurogenesis?  
a. Compared to other animals, neurogenesis is mostly restricted to  
development in humans  
4. What is synaptic plasticity?  
a. Changes in synapses that alter their communication  
5. What is the Hebbian synapse?  
a. A presynaptic neuron that fires repeatedly with a postsynaptic neuron will 
result in a stronger connection between the two neurons.  
6. Neurons that _____ together _____ together  
a. Fire  
b. Wire  
7. What are the mechanisms of synaptic plasticity?  
a. Synaptogenesis  
○ Addition of new synapses, increasing the total number of contacts  
b. Changes in the function of existing synapses  
○ Presynaptic neuron then releases more neurotransmitters (result of  
synaptic plasticity) 
○ Postsynaptic membrane becomes more sensitive to  
neurotransmitter release (result of synaptic plasticity)  
● More responsive to particular input  
V. Long Term Potentiation  
1. Explain the Bliss & Lomo (1937) rabbit hippocampal study  
a. Stimulated the perforant path so that axons would dump glutamate in the

[Audio] dentate gyrus of the hippocampus b. Recorded the local field potential looked at the overall activity c. Excitatory LFP: change in the voltage of extracellular fluid as positive ions enter neurons Shows that synapses change as a result of experience d. Overall result: Following strong stimulation, weak stimulation had a bigger effect on postsynaptic neurons Proved Hebbian Synapse 2. What are the two key glutamate receptors? Describe their function a. NDMA Initially blocked by a magnesium ion Cannot work at baseline conditions b. AMPA Intense AMPA activation during strong stimulation depolarizes the membrane and unblocks NMDA AMPA gets really active and allows sodium into the cell repels magnesium because they have the same charge (positive) c. Once AMPA unclogs NMDA, calcium is then allowed through the NMDA receptor which makes the synapse stronger (results in more AMPA receptors in postsynaptic membrane) Magnesium returns as soon as strong stimulation ends (blocking NMDA) 3. Induction of LTP requires _______ but the maintenance of LTP requires _______ a. NMDA and AMPA b. AMPA only 4. What drug blocks AMPA receptors? a. CNQX 5. What drug blocks NMDA receptors? a. APV 6. What are S-LTP and L-LTP? a. Short lasting LTP: based on changes in function of existing AMPA receptors b. Long lasting LTP: based on the addition of newly synthesized AMPA receptors If protein synthesis is blocked, L-LTP won't continue. 

Scene 5

dentate gyrus of the hippocampus  
b. Recorded the local field potential  
○ looked at the overall activity  
c. Excitatory LFP: change in the voltage of extracellular fluid as positive 
ions enter neurons  
○ Shows that synapses change as a result of experience  
d. Overall result:  
○ Following strong stimulation, weak stimulation had a bigger effect  
on postsynaptic neurons  
○ Proved Hebbian Synapse  
2. What are the two key glutamate receptors? Describe their function  
a. NDMA  
○ Initially blocked by a magnesium ion  
● Cannot work at baseline conditions  
b. AMPA  
○ Intense AMPA activation during strong stimulation depolarizes the  
membrane and unblocks NMDA  
● AMPA gets really active and allows sodium into the cell  
repels magnesium because they have the same charge  
(positive)  
c. Once AMPA unclogs NMDA, calcium is then allowed through the NMDA 
receptor which makes the synapse stronger (results in more AMPA  
receptors in postsynaptic membrane)  
○ Magnesium returns as soon as strong stimulation ends (blocking  
NMDA)  
3. Induction of LTP requires _______ but the maintenance of LTP requires _______ 
a. NMDA and AMPA  
b. AMPA only  
4. What drug blocks AMPA receptors?  
a. CNQX  
5. What drug blocks NMDA receptors?  
a. APV  
6. What are S-LTP and L-LTP? 
a. Short lasting LTP: based on changes in function of existing AMPA  
receptors  
b. Long lasting LTP: based on the addition of newly synthesized AMPA 
receptors  
○ If protein synthesis is blocked, L-LTP won’t continue

[Audio] 7. How are induction and expression related? a. Influx of calcium ions during induction initiates biochemical cascade results in more AMPA in postsynaptic membrane Leads to LTP VI. Role of LTP and its Opposite, Long Term Depression (LTD) in memory 1. Explain how NMDA and AMPA are involved in spatial memory a. AMPA maintains LTP so when the rat's AMPA receptors were blocked before the memory test, they act like they forgot b. Not the case when NMDA is blocked 2. Why is protein synthesis required to reconsolidate a retrieved memory? a. Retrieval may weaken previously consolidated connections Retrieval triggers degradation of AMPA b. Protein synthesis is required to maintain increases in synaptic strength 3. Explain long term depression and Hebb's rule a. If the presynaptic neuron becomes separate from the postsynaptic neuron, their connection will weaken b. "Out of sync, lose the link" 4. How can NMDA be required for LTP and LTD? a. Intense AMPA activation allows large amounts of calcium to pass through NMDA receptors b. High calcium levels initiates process that induces LTP c. Less intense AMPA activation will still allow smaller amounts of calcium to pass through d. Low levels of calcium initiates the process that induces LTD 5. T/F: LTD causes a loss of information everywhere in the brain a. False VII. Non Associative Memory in Aplysia Californica I. Habituation and Sensitisation in Aplysia Californica 1. What is Aplysia Californica? a. A sea slug 2. Why do we study Aplysia? a. They have a small nervous system b. Their neurons are large c. There is little variation between animals (so they can label neurons) d. We can fully understand learning and memory 3. What is habituation? a. Response to a stimulus decreases with repeated exposure b. "You get used to it". 

Scene 6

7. How are induction and expression related?  
a. Influx of calcium ions during induction initiates biochemical cascade 
results in more AMPA in postsynaptic membrane  
○ Leads to LTP  
VI. Role of LTP and its Opposite, Long Term Depression (LTD) in memory   1. 
Explain how NMDA and AMPA are involved in spatial memory  
a. AMPA maintains LTP so when the rat’s AMPA receptors were blocked 
before the memory test, they act like they forgot  
b. Not the case when NMDA is blocked  
2. Why is protein synthesis required to reconsolidate a retrieved memory? 
a. Retrieval may weaken previously consolidated connections  
○ Retrieval triggers degradation of AMPA  
b. Protein synthesis is required to maintain increases in synaptic strength 
3. Explain long term depression and Hebb's rule  
a. If the presynaptic neuron becomes separate from the postsynaptic neuron, 
their connection will weaken  
b. “Out of sync, lose the link”  
4. How can NMDA be required for LTP and LTD?  
a. Intense AMPA activation allows large amounts of calcium to pass through 
NMDA receptors  
b. High calcium levels initiates process that induces LTP  
c. Less intense AMPA activation will still allow smaller amounts of calcium 
to pass through  
d. Low levels of calcium initiates the process that induces LTD  
5. T/F: LTD causes a loss of information everywhere in the brain  
a. False 
VII. Non Associative Memory in Aplysia Californica  
I. Habituation and Sensitisation in Aplysia Californica  
1. What is Aplysia Californica?  
a. A sea slug  
2. Why do we study Aplysia?  
a. They have a small nervous system  
b. Their neurons are large  
c. There is little variation between animals (so they can label neurons)  
d. We can fully understand learning and memory  
3. What is habituation?  
a. Response to a stimulus decreases with repeated exposure  
b. “You get used to it”

[Audio] 4. What is sensitization? a. Response to a stimulus increases with repeated exposure or with exposure to a different stimulus b. "It gets more annoying/painful overtime" 5. How do we measure habituation and sensitization in Aplysia? a. Gill withdrawal reflex 6. T/F Spaced training produces no significant difference in the duration of memory a. False, spaced training enhances memory and increases duration 7. Why would a creature need to habituate or sensitize to its environment? a. Precautionary Principle: nervous systems assume danger first rather than be caught unaware b. There is a cost to being so cautious; response lessens overtime if animal deems a stimuli isn't dangerous (or increases if the stimuli is dangerous) 8. What is the significance of Aplyisa's abdominal ganglion? a. Nervous system is across the entire creature- not just the head b. We can pinpoint the exact neurons the cause the gill reflex and study them 9. Explain how the gill withdrawal circuit operates a. Sensory neuron is directly connected to the motor neuron, which activates the gill withdrawal response when activated i. Habituation occurs when the sensory neuron releases less neurotransmitters onto the motor neuron, causing it to fire less and lessen the gill withdrawal response ii. Sensitization requires an additional modulatory interneuron which forms a synapse on the axon terminal of the sensory neuron When shock occurs, the modulatory interneuron releases serotonin on the siphon sensory neuron terminal which causes a much larger response in the motor neuron/gill withdrawal response II. Neural Mechanisms of Aplysia Californica Habituation 1. Short term habituation is mediated by _____? Explain this concept. a. Synaptic depression; decrease in neurotransmitter release b. Connection between siphon sensor neuron and motor neuron gets weaker i. Less able to depolarize the motor neuron after repeated exposure to stimuli 2. Explain how dishabituation occurs. a. After intense stimulation the gill withdrawal reflex dishabituates b. Synaptic depression is reversed 3. What makes dishabituation different from sensitization?. 

Scene 7

4. What is sensitization?  
a. Response to a stimulus increases with repeated exposure or with exposure 
to a different stimulus  
b. “It gets more annoying/painful overtime”  
5. How do we measure habituation and sensitization in Aplysia?  
a. Gill withdrawal reflex  
6. T/F Spaced training produces no significant difference in the duration of memory 
a. False, spaced training enhances memory and increases duration  
7. Why would a creature need to habituate or sensitize to its environment? a. 
Precautionary Principle: nervous systems assume danger first rather than be 
caught unaware  
b. There is a cost to being so cautious; response lessens overtime if animal 
deems a stimuli isn't dangerous (or increases if the stimuli is dangerous)  
8. What is the significance of Aplyisa’s abdominal ganglion?  
a. Nervous system is across the entire creature- not just the head  
b. We can pinpoint the exact neurons the cause the gill reflex and study them  
9. Explain how the gill withdrawal circuit operates  
a. Sensory neuron is directly connected to the motor neuron, which activates 
the gill withdrawal response when activated  
i. Habituation occurs when the sensory neuron releases less  
neurotransmitters onto the motor neuron, causing it to fire less and  
lessen the gill withdrawal response  
ii. Sensitization requires an additional modulatory interneuron which  
forms a synapse on the axon terminal of the sensory neuron  
○ When shock occurs, the modulatory interneuron releases  
serotonin on the siphon sensory neuron terminal which  
causes a much larger response in the motor neuron/gill  
withdrawal response 
II. Neural Mechanisms of Aplysia Californica Habituation  
1. Short term habituation is mediated by _____? Explain this concept.  
a. Synaptic depression; decrease in neurotransmitter release  
b. Connection between siphon sensor neuron and motor neuron gets weaker i. 
Less able to depolarize the motor neuron after repeated exposure to  
stimuli  
2. Explain how dishabituation occurs.  
a. After intense stimulation the gill withdrawal reflex dishabituates  
b. Synaptic depression is reversed  
3. What makes dishabituation different from sensitization?

[Audio] a. Sensitization is an increase in the baseline response; dishabituation brings the habituated response back to baseline. 4. What is the short term habituation hypothesis? a. The sites on the presynaptic membrane are designed to be released b. Light stimulation silences release sites but they are immediately reactivated with strong stimulation 5. Long term habitation is mediated by ______? Explain this concept. a. Synaptic depression b. Depolarization of motor neurons gets smaller over time c. The number of axon branches and terminals are reduced d. Active zones on axons shrink e. Total number of synapses in abdominal ganglia dramatically decrease 6. Short term habituation is mediated by _____ changes. Long term habituation is mediated by ______ changes. a. Functional b. Structural 7. What induces long term habituation? a. Protein synthesis induces the structural changes III. Neural Mechanisms of Aplysia Californica Sensitization 1. What is short term sensitization mediated by? Explain. a. Synaptic facilitation b. This means change occurs in the function i. Increased action potential duration means more neurotransmitter release 2. Long term sensitization is mediated by ______? a. Structural changes in the siphon sensory neuron i. Increase in synaptic contacts ii. Depends on protein synthesis. 

Scene 8

a. Sensitization is an increase in the baseline response; dishabituation brings 
the habituated response back to baseline.  
4. What is the short term habituation hypothesis?  
a. The sites on the presynaptic membrane are designed to be released  
b. Light stimulation silences release sites but they are immediately  
reactivated with strong stimulation  
5. Long term habitation is mediated by ______? Explain this concept.  
a. Synaptic depression  
b. Depolarization of motor neurons gets smaller over time  
c. The number of axon branches and terminals are reduced  
d. Active zones on axons shrink  
e. Total number of synapses in abdominal ganglia dramatically decrease     
6. Short term habituation is mediated by _____ changes. Long term habituation is 
mediated by ______ changes.  
a. Functional  
b. Structural  
7. What induces long term habituation?  
a. Protein synthesis induces the structural changes  
III. Neural Mechanisms of Aplysia Californica Sensitization  
1. What is short term sensitization mediated by? Explain.  
a. Synaptic facilitation  
b. This means change occurs in the function  
i. Increased action potential duration means more neurotransmitter  
release  
2. Long term sensitization is mediated by ______?  
a. Structural changes in the siphon sensory neuron  
i. Increase in synaptic contacts  
ii. Depends on protein synthesis

332 Exam 1 Review KEY

Memory Concepts   I Learning and Memory: Basic Definitions   1. What is learning?   a Process of which new information is acquired for storage   2. What are the properties of learning?   a Initiated by experience   b Selects information that enters into memory   3. Fill in the blank: learning is like a ____   a Filter   4. What is memory?   a Information extracted from experience and stored for later recovery/use  5. What are the properties of memory?   a It persists after the remembered experience ends   b It can enter a latent state before being activated by a retrieval process  c The content of memory reflects the experience that created it   6. T/F: Short term memory isn't considered real memory because it does not endure  beyond experience   a False; it only endures for seconds but those seconds count   7. What is a latent state?   a The stored form of a memory; long term memories must be in this state so  that they can endure   8. T/F: Learning and Memory are directly observed so no explanatory power is  needed.   a False they are inferred; explanatory power is crucial   9. How do psychologists study learning and memory?   a Systematically vary experience   b Monitor for later changes in behavior that vary with differences in   experience   c Draw data based inferences about the intervening learning and memory  process that connect the two   10. How do neuroscientists study learning and memory?   a Manipulate the brain, observe behavioral changes   b Vary experience and observe behavioral changes in the brain   11. What is the engram and what is its significance in learning and memory?  a The neurobiological representation of stored information   
 Memory   b The process by which engrams are formed or encoded   
 Learning

avatar

12. What does behavioral neuroscience aim to understand?  a Brain behavior relationships, using both psychological and neuroscientific  methods   2. Fundamental Properties of All Memory   1. Ebbinghuas's forgetting curve illustrated what?   a Most memory loss occurs within the hour but the bare bones of a memory  endures after many details are culled   2. William James proposed a ______ process of memory. What does this mean?  a Multi stage   b Multiple memories are initiated at the same time and last for different  amounts of time.   3. What is consolidation? What is the process?   a The process by which a long term memory gradually stabilizes for   long term storage.   b Starts with original learning experience   c Occurs in parallel with short term memory   4. How does sleep affect consolidation?   a Learning followed by sleep has better retention   5. With the case of HM, Brenda Milner found:   a HM had intact long term memory   b Shallow retrograde amnesia   
 Limited memories of the months prior to surgery   c Profound anterograde amnesia   
 HM was unable to form new long term memories   
 Short term memory seemed fine   6. HM had a ______ deficit. What does this mean?   a Consolidation   b The surgery disrupted memories still in in the process of consolidation  (shallow retrograde amnesia) and prevented the consolidation of new long  term memories (profound anterograde amnesia)   7. What are the recency and primacy effects? What period of learning is most at  risk?   a Recency effect: remembering the newest terms   b Primary effect: remembering the first terms   c Information learned in the middle is most at risk because it is being   interfered with by both the recent information and primary information.   8. T/F: short term memory and long term memory are independent processes.  a True

9. What is a retrieval cue?   a An element of a previous learning experience that causes remembered  information to be reactivated  b The more elaborate and complete a retrieval cue is, the better the   reactivation is   10. What is memory interference?   a Multiple memories are reactivated by the same cue   b Prevents desired memory from being retrieved   11. T/F: memory is like a filing cabinet   a False it is constructed through retrieval   12. What are schemas?   a Organized structures of knowledge   3. Memory Taxonomy: Different Memory Types (Defined by Content)    1. What are the two major types of memory? Describe them.   a Declarative   
 Explicit memories   
 Can be described using language   
 Aware that you are remembering something   
 Like remembering definitions on an exam   b Non declarative   
 Implicit memories   
 Cannot be described using language   
 Not aware you are remembering something you just know   
 Mean joke Dr  Claparede plays on the amnesia patient   
 Acquired through: pavlovian learning, instrumental learning,   stimulus response learning, and non associative learning   2. What are the two types of declarative memory? Describe them.   a Episodic memory   
 Conscious recollection of what happened, where it happened and   when it happened (relating to you)   b Semantic memory   
 Facts about your environment and the world   
 You know you are a high school graduate without needing   to think specifically about your high school graduation   3. What is mental time travel?   a Remembering past experiences and imagining future experiences   b Altered time scale you can control   4. What are the two types of non declarative memory? Describe them.

a. Emotional memory   
 Emotional associations with a stimuli in the environment   b Procedural memory   
 Implicit memory for how to perform complex tasks   
 Still may require conscious attention  Cellular and Synaptic Mechanisms of Memory   4. Neural Plasticity and Memory   1. Explain the term "plasticity"   a Able to be shaped, altered and changed by experience   b Brains are plastic   c Thought to be the biological basis of memory   2. What is neurogenesis? Which brain areas undergo neurogenesis throughout  lifespan?   a The birth of new neurons   b Hippocampus and olfactory bulb   3. What is the problem with neurogenesis?   a Compared to other animals, neurogenesis is mostly restricted to   development in humans   4. What is synaptic plasticity?   a Changes in synapses that alter their communication   5. What is the Hebbian synapse?   a A presynaptic neuron that fires repeatedly with a postsynaptic neuron will  result in a stronger connection between the two neurons.   6. Neurons that _____ together _____ together   a Fire   b Wire   7. What are the mechanisms of synaptic plasticity?   a Synaptogenesis   
 Addition of new synapses, increasing the total number of contacts   b Changes in the function of existing synapses   
 Presynaptic neuron then releases more neurotransmitters (result of   synaptic plasticity)  
 Postsynaptic membrane becomes more sensitive to   neurotransmitter release (result of synaptic plasticity)   
 More responsive to particular input   5 Long Term Potentiation   1. Explain the Bliss & Lomo (1937) rabbit hippocampal study   a Stimulated the perforant path so that axons would dump glutamate in the

dentate gyrus of the hippocampus   b Recorded the local field potential   
 looked at the overall activity   c Excitatory L-F-P--: change in the voltage of extracellular fluid as positive  ions enter neurons   
 Shows that synapses change as a result of experience   d Overall result:   
 Following strong stimulation, weak stimulation had a bigger effect   on postsynaptic neurons   
 Proved Hebbian Synapse   2. What are the two key glutamate receptors? Describe their function   a NDMA   
 Initially blocked by a magnesium ion   
 Cannot work at baseline conditions   b AMPA   
 Intense A-M-P-A activation during strong stimulation depolarizes the   membrane and unblocks NMDA   
 AMPA gets really active and allows sodium into the cell   repels magnesium because they have the same charge   (positive)   c Once A-M-P-A unclogs N-M-D-A-, calcium is then allowed through the N-M-D-A  receptor which makes the synapse stronger (results in more AMPA   receptors in postsynaptic membrane)   
 Magnesium returns as soon as strong stimulation ends (blocking   NMDA)   3. Induction of L-T-P requires _______ but the maintenance of L-T-P requires _______  a N-M-D-A and AMPA   b A-M-P-A only   4. What drug blocks A-M-P-A receptors?   a CNQX   5. What drug blocks N-M-D-A receptors?   a APV   6. What are S-LTP and L-LTP?  a Short lasting L-T-P--: based on changes in function of existing AMPA   receptors   b Long lasting L-T-P--: based on the addition of newly synthesized A-M-P-A  receptors   
 If protein synthesis is blocked, L-LTP won't continue

7. How are induction and expression related?   a Influx of calcium ions during induction initiates biochemical cascade  results in more A-M-P-A in postsynaptic membrane   
 Leads to LTP   6. Role of L-T-P and its Opposite, Long Term Depression (L-T-D--) in memory   1.  Explain how N-M-D-A and A-M-P-A are involved in spatial memory   a A-M-P-A maintains L-T-P so when the rat's A-M-P-A receptors were blocked  before the memory test, they act like they forgot   b Not the case when N-M-D-A is blocked   2. Why is protein synthesis required to reconsolidate a retrieved memory?  a Retrieval may weaken previously consolidated connections   
 Retrieval triggers degradation of AMPA   b Protein synthesis is required to maintain increases in synaptic strength  3. Explain long term depression and Hebb's rule   a If the presynaptic neuron becomes separate from the postsynaptic neuron,  their connection will weaken   b "Out of sync, lose the link"   4. How can N-M-D-A be required for L-T-P and LTD?   a Intense A-M-P-A activation allows large amounts of calcium to pass through  N-M-D-A receptors   b High calcium levels initiates process that induces LTP   c Less intense A-M-P-A activation will still allow smaller amounts of calcium  to pass through   d Low levels of calcium initiates the process that induces LTD   5. T/F: L-T-D causes a loss of information everywhere in the brain   a False  7. Non Associative Memory in Aplysia Californica   I Habituation and Sensitisation in Aplysia Californica   1. What is Aplysia Californica?   a A sea slug   2. Why do we study Aplysia?   a They have a small nervous system   b Their neurons are large   c There is little variation between animals (so they can label neurons)   d We can fully understand learning and memory   3. What is habituation?   a Response to a stimulus decreases with repeated exposure   b "You get used to it"

4. What is sensitization?   a Response to a stimulus increases with repeated exposure or with exposure  to a different stimulus   b "It gets more annoying/painful overtime"   5. How do we measure habituation and sensitization in Aplysia?   a Gill withdrawal reflex   6. T/F Spaced training produces no significant difference in the duration of memory  a False, spaced training enhances memory and increases duration   7. Why would a creature need to habituate or sensitize to its environment? a  Precautionary Principle: nervous systems assume danger first rather than be  caught unaware   b There is a cost to being so cautious; response lessens overtime if animal  deems a stimuli isn't dangerous (or increases if the stimuli is dangerous)   8. What is the significance of Aplyisa's abdominal ganglion?   a Nervous system is across the entire creature not just the head   b We can pinpoint the exact neurons the cause the gill reflex and study them   9. Explain how the gill withdrawal circuit operates   a Sensory neuron is directly connected to the motor neuron, which activates  the gill withdrawal response when activated   i Habituation occurs when the sensory neuron releases less   neurotransmitters onto the motor neuron, causing it to fire less and   lessen the gill withdrawal response   ii. Sensitization requires an additional modulatory interneuron which   forms a synapse on the axon terminal of the sensory neuron   
 When shock occurs, the modulatory interneuron releases   serotonin on the siphon sensory neuron terminal which   causes a much larger response in the motor neuron/gill   withdrawal response  2. Neural Mechanisms of Aplysia Californica Habituation   1. Short term habituation is mediated by _____? Explain this concept.   a Synaptic depression; decrease in neurotransmitter release   b Connection between siphon sensor neuron and motor neuron gets weaker i  Less able to depolarize the motor neuron after repeated exposure to   stimuli   2. Explain how dishabituation occurs.   a After intense stimulation the gill withdrawal reflex dishabituates   b Synaptic depression is reversed   3. What makes dishabituation different from sensitization?

a. Sensitization is an increase in the baseline response; dishabituation brings  the habituated response back to baseline.   4. What is the short term habituation hypothesis?   a The sites on the presynaptic membrane are designed to be released   b Light stimulation silences release sites but they are immediately   reactivated with strong stimulation   5. Long term habitation is mediated by ______? Explain this concept.   a Synaptic depression   b Depolarization of motor neurons gets smaller over time   c The number of axon branches and terminals are reduced   d Active zones on axons shrink   e Total number of synapses in abdominal ganglia dramatically decrease      6. Short term habituation is mediated by _____ changes. Long term habituation is  mediated by ______ changes.   a Functional   b Structural   7. What induces long term habituation?   a Protein synthesis induces the structural changes   3. Neural Mechanisms of Aplysia Californica Sensitization   1. What is short term sensitization mediated by? Explain.   a Synaptic facilitation   b This means change occurs in the function   i Increased action potential duration means more neurotransmitter   release   2. Long term sensitization is mediated by ______?   a Structural changes in the siphon sensory neuron   i Increase in synaptic contacts   ii. Depends on protein synthesis